Chapter 6

1. Chapter 6 Motivating Effectively

2. Ability Performance Motivation Situation The Relationship of Motivationto Performance

3. Fundamentals of Motivation • Motivation comes from the Latin movere, “to move” • Motivation requires: • arousal to initiate behavior toward a goal • direction to properly focus that behavior • persistence to ultimately attain the goal • The motivation “toolkit” contains: • content or need theories to help us understand what people want • process theories to understand the motivation process

4. Some Theories Of Motivation • Need (or Content) Theories • Maslow’s Need Hierarchy • Alderfer’s ERG Theory • McClelland’s Manifest Needs • Process Theories • Learning Theory • Goal Setting Theory • Equity Theory • Expectancy Theory

5. Understanding Employee Needs • A need is something that people require. • Satisfaction is the condition of need fulfillment • Motivation is the attempt to satisfy a need.

6. Goal Attainment or Frustration Search for Potential Need- Satisfying Goal Attempt to Attain Goal Perception of Potential Need- Satisfying Goal The Need Satisfaction Process (Figure 6-1) Need Deficiency

7. Maslow’s Needs • Physiological: the need for food, sleep, water, air, and sex • Security: the need for safety, family, stability, and economic security • Social or affiliation: the need to belong, to interact with others, to have friends, and to love and be loved • Esteem: the need for respect and recognition of others • Self-actualization: the need to realize one’s potential, to grow, to be creative, and to accomplish

8. Satisfaction Progression Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Self- Actualization Esteem Social Security Physiological

9. Maslow’s Hypotheses • Needs cluster into five sets • Needs at the lowest unsatisfied level are most salient • A satisfied need is not a motivator • There is a hierarchy of successive prepotency -- once needs at a given level are satisfied, those at the next higher level become most important

10. Evidence Concerning Maslow’sNeed Hierarchy • People do have a variety of needs which vary in levels of satisfaction and importance. • For most needs, satisfaction is negatively related to performance. • Satisfaction of lower level needs is generally necessary before higher level needs become more important. • Other than this, people don’t move up the hierarchy in any predictable fashion. • It appears that people have two or three distinct sets of needs, not five. • For higher level needs, satisfaction and importance are positively related.

11. Alderfer’s Sets of Needs (ERG) • Existence -- all forms of material and physical desires • Relatedness -- all needs involving relationships with significant other persons • Growth -- All needs involving a person making creative and productive efforts on the self and the environment

12. Satisfaction Progression Frustration Regression Alderfer’s ERG Theory Growth Needs Relatedness Needs Existence Needs

13. Differences Between Maslow’s Need Hierarchy and Alderfer’s ERG Theory • Alderfer collapses Maslow’s five levels into three • Alderfer says growth need strength is positively related to growth need satisfaction • Alderfer sees a hierarchy only in terms of increasing abstractness • Alderfer recognizes frustration regression as well as satisfaction progression

14. McClelland’s Manifest Needs • Need for Achievement: The need to do well no matter what goal is pursued. • Need for Affiliation: The desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with other people. • Need for Power: The desire to control other people, to influence their behavior, and to be responsible for them.

15. Characteristics of Individuals withStrong Need for Achievement • Desire to attain goals. • Desire for personal responsibility. • Desire for quick feedback on performance.

16. Implications of Need Theories • Different people have different needs structures as well as different needs that may be salient at a given time. • While satisfaction occurs when needs are met, motivation flows from lack of satisfaction. • A reward may satisfy multiple needs. • Needs appear to form two or three clusters.

17. Implications of Need Theories (Continued) • While most people first focus on existence needs when those needs are not satisfied, it is not possible to say which needs will next become most important. • Both satisfaction progression and frustration regression are important. • The top cluster of needs, sometimes called growth needs, behave differently from others. • It may be possible to develop people’s needs.

18. Identify the Most Active Needs of Employees Develop Specific Strategies to Satisfy Active Employee Needs Evaluate the Plan Implement Strategies The Bottom Line: Need Theories Assess Employee Needs

19. Learning Theories • Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior produced by experience. • Three types of learning: • classical conditioning • operant conditioning • social learning

20. Step 1: Before Conditioning Bell No Response and Food Response (Salivation) Step 2: During Conditioning Bell Followed by Food Response (Salivation) Step 3: After Conditioning Food Response (Salivation) Classical Conditioning (Figure 6-4)

21. Stimulus Response Consequence Operant Conditioning (Figure 6-5)

22. Positive Reinforcement Stimulus Desired Response Positive Consequence Escape Learning (Negative Reinforcement) Stimulus Desired Response Removal of Noxious Consequence Avoidance Learning Desired Response Avoidance of Noxious Consequence Arranging Contingencies to Increase Desired Behaviors (Figure 6-6)

23. Stimulus Undesired Response Positive Consequence Withholding of Positive Consequence Stimulus Undesired Response Stimulus Desired Response Arranging Contingencies to Reduce Undesired Behaviors (Figure 6-7) Nonreinforcement (Extinction)

24. Noxious Consequence or Withholding of Positive Consequence Stimulus Undesired Response Stimulus Undesired Response Arranging Contingencies to Reduce Undesired Behaviors (Fig. 6-7) Continued Punishment

25. Problems with Use of Punishment • Managers don’t like to punish others. • Managers may feel constrained from using punishment because of company policy or threat of reprisal. • Punishment may engender resentment. • Punishment may lead to revenge and retaliation. • Punishment leads to adherence only when the person administering the punishment is present or monitoring • Others may misinterpret the reasons for punishment. • Punishment may reduce the undesired behavior, but it doesn’t directly teach a desired behavior.

26. Desired Properties ofReinforcement Schedules • Rapid Learning. The schedule should quickly teach desired behaviors. • High Response Rate. The schedule should have high “bang for the buck” (that is, high levels of motivation at a relatively low cost). • High Response Stability. The schedule should encourage engaging in desired behaviors on a regular basis. • Low Extinction Rate. The schedule should ensure that, once a behavior is learned, it will be maintained even if reinforcement is temporarily stopped.

27. Reinforcement Schedules • Continuous reinforcement: every instance of the target behavior is reinforced • Fixed-interval: a reinforcer is provided at fixed time intervals (e.g., weekly paycheck) • Variable-interval: a reinforcer is administered randomly around some average interval (e.g., four pop quizzes during semester) • Fixed-ratio: A reinforcer is provided after every n responses (e.g., bonus for every ten units sold) • Variable-ratio: A reinforcer is administered on average every n responses (e.g., payoff on slot machine on average of once every ten pulls of handle)

28. Comparing the Schedules of Reinforcement (Figure 6-8)

29. Some Guidelines for Effectively Using Learning Techniques in Organizations • Don’t give the same reward to all. • Recognize that failure to respond has reinforcing consequences. • Tell a person what behavior gets reinforced. • Tell a person what he or she is doing wrong. • Don’t punish in front of others. • Make the consequences equal to the behavior. • Reinforce behaviors as soon as possible.

30. Obtain Baseline Measure of Target Behavior Define Criterion Level of Target Behavior Identify Appropriate Reinforcer(s) Evaluate the Plan (Assess Levels of Target Behavior Against Criterion) Implement the Plan Identify an Appropriate Schedule of Reinforcement The Bottom Line: Organizational Behavior Modification (OBM) Identify Target Behavior

31. Functions of Goals • Goals let employees know what they are expected to do. • Goals relieve boredom. • Reaching goals and getting positive feedback leads to increased liking for the task and satisfaction with job performance. • Attaining goals leads to recognition by peers, supervisors, and others. • Attaining goals leads to feelings of increased self-confidence, pride in achievement, and willingness to accept future challenges.

32. GOAL ACCEPTANCE MOTIVATION GOAL COMMITMENT Important Goal Characteristics(Figure 6-9) SPECIFIC GOALS DIFFICULT GOALS FEEDBACK ON PROGRESS COMPETITION PARTICIPATION IN GOAL SETTING

33. Management by Objectives • Management by objectives (MBO) is a motivational technique in which the manager and employee work together to set employee goals. • MBO combines many key goal setting principles, including setting of specific goals, participation in goal setting, and feedback on performance. • MBO may be difficult and time consuming to implement, and may encourage focus on easily-quantifiable goals. • 68 of 70 major studies showed MBO to result in productivity gains.

34. Provide Management Support (Including Feedback) for Achievement of Employee Goals Ensure That the Employee Under- Stands the Goals and is Committed to Achieving Them Link Appropriate Consequences to Goal Achievement Assess Employee Job Performance Against Goals The Bottom Line: Goal Setting Theory Use Employee Participation to Set Difficult and Specific Goals

35. Second-Order Outcome 1 (e.g., Approval of Supervisor) with Valence V1 Second-Order Outcome 2 (e.g., Pay) with Valence V2 EXPECTANCY Second-Order Outcome 3 (e.g., Esteem of Coworkers) with Valence V3 INSTRUMENTALITIES Second-Order Outcome 4 (e.g., Promotion Opportunities) with Valence V4 Second-Order Outcomes 5 to n (e.g., Job Security, Better Work Hours) with Valences V5 to Vn The Components of ExpectancyTheory (Figure 6-10) Effort to Perform at a Certain Level First-Order Outcome (e.g., Performance)

36. Role Perceptions Ability Effort First-Order Outcome Situational Constraints The Linkage of Effort to a First-Order Outcome (Figure 6-11)

37. Implications of Expectancy Theory • Recognize that three conditions are necessary for motivation to perform. • Assess perceptions of each of these conditions. • Identify gaps between employee and management perceptions. • Make sure you are giving employees what they want. • Ask what factors may be weakening expectancy perceptions. • Ask what factors may be weakening instrumentality perceptions. • If employees appear to be poorly motivated, work backwards.

38. Provide Training, Direction, and Opportunities to Succeed to Enhance Employee’s Belief that He/She Can Achieve High Job Performance Promote Employee’s Belief that Job Performance Matters by Using Appropriate Reward Policies and Practices Promote Managerial Support to Ensure That Employee Motivation Results in High Job Performance Use Organizational Reward Systems and Job Design to Link Positively Valued Consequences to Employee Job Performance in an Equitable Manner The Bottom Line: Expectancy Theory Identify Desired Level of Employee Motivation

39. Why Be Fair? General Reasons • When people experience a situation they feel is not fair, they experience an unpleasant state of tension. • Some people try to be fair because they think others will reward them for being fair. • Behaving fairly may bolster a person’s self-esteem. • Most people find it comforting to believe that life is fair.

40. Why Be Fair? Employers’ Reasons • To conform to business norms. • To attract superior workers to their company and weed out inferior workers. • To motivate employees to produce. • To develop trust.

41. Op Oo IO Ip Equity Theory Equation =

42. Restoring Equity (Underpaid Case) • Raise actual outcomes • Lower inputs • Perceptually distort inputs and/or outcomes • Perceptually distort comparison other’s inputs and/or outcomes • Leave the situation • Act to change the comparison other’s inputs and/or outcomes • Change the comparison other

43. How People Choose From Among Ways to Reduce Inequity • People will first try to maximize valued outcomes. • People will be reluctant to increase inputs that are difficult or costly to change. • People will resist actual or perceived changes in inputs or outcomes that are central to their self-concept and self-esteem. • People will be more resistant to changing perceptions of their own inputs and outcomes than to changing perceptions of their comparison other’s inputs and outcomes. • People will leave the situation only when inequity is great and other means of reducing it are not available. • People will be reluctant to change their comparison others.

44. Identify Employees Who Perceive Inequities Identify the Basis for Employee Perceptions of Inequity Evaluate Management Policies and Practices to Determine the Validity of Employee Perceptions Implement Changes and Communicate Them to Employees Identify Specific Changes That Can Be Made to Address Employee Equity Concerns The Bottom Line: Equity Theory Assess Employee Perceptions of Equity in Their Work Situations

45. Rules for Determining Distributive Fairness • Contributions Rule: Give people outcomes in proportion to their contributions (inputs). • Needs Rule: Give people outcomes according to their needs. • Equality Rule: Give people outcomes on an equal basis.

46. Factors Influencing WeightsGiven to Distributive Fairness Rules • Self-interest: People tend to assign higher weights to rules that favor them. • Conformity: People tend to conform to the rules favored by others with whom they interact. • Availability of Relevant Information: People are reluctant to use a rule for which they don’t have sufficient information.

47. Implications of Fairness Theories • Fairness is absolutely critical to employees. • Perceptions play a central role in determinations of fairness. • Fairness involves a comparison process. • Both distributive fairness and procedural fairness are important. • Both overreward and underreward may cause problems.

48. Implications of Fairness Theories (Continued) • Employees may consider inputs and outcomes that are different than those we may expect. • We need to find what people really value and what they think they are contributing. • Employees may find many ways to reduce perceived inequity. • While the exact means employees will use to reduce inequity may be difficult to predict, almost all are harmful to organizations and perhaps to the individuals themselves.

49. The Case for Specialization • The worker should be better able to perform the task and should find it to be easier. • Time is not lost moving from one piece of machinery to another. • The use of specialized machinery is encouraged. • Replacement of employees who are absent or who leave the organization is easier, since the job is simpler to learn. • Especially when assembly lines are used, the worker may adjust to the required pace and be drawn along by “traction.”

50. Stimulus Condition Perception Affective Response Behavioral Response Simplified, Low Skill Level, Short Cycle Jobs Monotony Absenteeism, Turnover, Restriction of Output Boredom, Job Dissatis- faction Potential Reactions to Specialized Jobs (Figure 6-13)