1 / 57

Lecture 7 – Psyco 350, B1 Fall, 2011

Lecture 7 – Psyco 350, B1 Fall, 2011. N. R. Brown. Outline. Memory Basics Factors that influence Storage: Rehearsal Organization Generation Levels of Processing Encoding & Retrieval – context effects Independent Contexts Interactive Contexts. (Episodic) Memory Basic: Implications.

zarola
Download Presentation

Lecture 7 – Psyco 350, B1 Fall, 2011

An Image/Link below is provided (as is) to download presentation Download Policy: Content on the Website is provided to you AS IS for your information and personal use and may not be sold / licensed / shared on other websites without getting consent from its author. Content is provided to you AS IS for your information and personal use only. Download presentation by click this link. While downloading, if for some reason you are not able to download a presentation, the publisher may have deleted the file from their server. During download, if you can't get a presentation, the file might be deleted by the publisher.

E N D

Presentation Transcript

  1. Lecture 7 – Psyco 350, B1Fall, 2011 N. R. Brown Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 1

  2. Outline • Memory Basics • Factors that influence Storage: • Rehearsal • Organization • Generation • Levels of Processing • Encoding & Retrieval – context effects • Independent Contexts • Interactive Contexts Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 2

  3. (Episodic) Memory Basic: Implications • The stronger the link between a cued concept and an ER, the greater probability that the ER will be recalled. [non-elaborative rehearsal] Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 3

  4. Cue word: Cozumel w/ strong link “Cozumel” WM Cozumel Diving SM Event20342 EP Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 4

  5. (Episodic) Memory Basic: Implications • The more ER-to-concept links there are, the greater the probability that a given cue will serve as an effective retrieval cue. [elaboration, depth or processing] Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 5

  6. Cue words: “Cozumel” “diving” “hurricane” WM hurricane Cozumel Diving SM Event20342 EP Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 6

  7. (Episodic) Memory Basic: Implications • Context (internal & external) is encoded as part of the ER, and thus contextual features can serve as retrieval cues. • Increasing the similarity between encoding contexts and retrieval contexts increases the probability of retrieval. [context effects, TAP] Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 7

  8. Contextual Cue taste of t. scrimp WM Cozumel Diving tequila scrimp SM Event20342 EP Psyco 350 Lec #7– Slide 8

  9. (Episodic) Memory Basic: Implications • Probability of recall decreases, as # of ERs linked to a cued concept increases. [interference] Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 9

  10. Cue word: “diving”  interference “diving” WM Cozumel Diving Grand Banks SM Event20342 Event5632 EP Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 10

  11. Memory Processes • Encoding: • process of storing information in memory • Storage: • the retention (& loss) of information over time • Retrieval: • recovery of previously stored information Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 11

  12. Encoding Processes: Rehearsal • Rehearsal: a set of techniques/strategies for encoding information into long-term memory • Two kinds of rehearsal: • Maintenance: keeps information "alive" in WM; rote recycling; little effect on LTM • Elaboration: "promotes" information to LTM; think about and connect Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 12

  13. Maintenance Rehearsal:Craik and Watkins (1973) Task: • Monitor auditory list for words beginning w/ target letter (e.g., G) • required to recall “last” target word at end of list (list could end at any time). • Session final recall – recall as many words as possible. Manipulation: # of words between appearance of target word (assumed equal to amount of rehearsal). Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 13

  14. Craik and Watkins (1973) Word list Goat Daughter Oil Rifle Garden Grain Table Football Anchor Giraffe Brush Subject maintains Goat Goat Goat Goat (i=4) Garden (i=1) Grain Grain Grain Grain (i=4) Giraffe Giraffe (i=2) Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 14

  15. Craik & Watkins (1973) Results: • recall unaffected by # of rehearsals. Interpretation: rote (maintenance) rehearsal fails to transfer info to LTM. Question: • What about Rundus (1971)? • Maintenance + (elaboration, relational coding, etc) Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 15

  16. Rundus (1971) again • Analysis: • # rehearsals for each word (position) • % recall for each word (position) • Results: • “For a given amount of rehearsal, items from the initial serial positions are no better recalled than items from the middle of the list” – Rundus, 1971, p. 66 Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 16

  17. Elaborative Encoding: Bradshaw & Anderson(1982) Tasks: Recall “target” fact Design: Encoding Context X Delay target only immediate (no delay) target + 2 irrelevant facts 1 week target + 2 relevant facts Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 17

  18. Elaborative Encoding: Bradshaw & Anderson(1982) Target only: Newton became emotionally unstable and insecure as child. Target+2 irrelevant facts: Locke was unhappy as a student at Westminster. plus Locke felt fruits were unwholesome for children. Locke had a long history of back problems. Target+2 relevant facts Mozart made a long journey form Munich to Paris. plus Mozart wanted to leave Munich to avoid a romantic entanglement. Mozart was intrigued by musical developments in Paris. Psyco 350 Lec #7– Slide 18

  19. Bradshaw & Anderson(1982): Results • Encoding relevant facts improved recall. • Encoding irrelevant facts hampered recall. • Effect was magnified by delay. Interpretation: • relevant elaboration increases # of retrieval path • relevant facts fosters generation of appropriate cues • irrelevant facts cause interference Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 19

  20. Spacing Effects • Issue: • Rehearsal improves memory. • Does the temporal distribution of rehearsals matter? • Research Strategy • holding # of presentations constant, manipulate the lag (delay) between presentations. Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 20

  21. Madigan (1969): Spacing Effect • Method: • words studied twice at 6 different lags. • Results: • recall  w/ lag • Other findings: • spacing affects recognition (Glenberg, 1979) • obtained w/ textbook materials Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 21

  22. Accounting for the Spacing Effect • Deficient Processing • habituate to recently presented material (less “interesting”) • short lags  overestimation of learning --> decreases (or redistributed) rehearsals. • Encoding Variability: • Recall depends in part on study context matching test context. • Context changes w/ time • the greater the lag, the more different the encoding contexts, and therefore the more likely that one of them will overlap with the test context. Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 22

  23. Subjective Organization A definition: “organizing & structuring a list of items, but w/out the experimenter-supplied category structure.” -- Ashcraft, p. 218 Subjective-Organization Phenomena: • recall better for lists composes of randomly presented sets of category members than for random words. • category members clusters during study & recall (Bousfield, 1953). • Recall of random word lists becomes increasingly organized w/ practice (Tulving, 1962). Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 23

  24. Experimenter-Provided Organization: Bower et at. 1969 • Materials: • 4 hierarchically organized trees • 112 words in all • 4 study-test blocks • Two groups: • Organized – words in “correct” position in trees • Random – words assigned to positions randomly • Results: recall  over blocks recall: organized >> random Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 24

  25. Benefits of Organization • Encoding Efficiency • strengthens preexisting superordinate-subordinate links & intra-category links no need to generate & encode new elaborations • Retrieval Efficiency • category label can be used as retrieval cue • category knowledge can be used to GENERATE items, which can be RECOGNIZED as list members. Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 25

  26. Another Study List Study the up coming 20 item-list. You will see two types of stims: • word-pairs (doctor-nurse) • Read second word (nurse) 2. Generation pairs (empty-F___) • Read 1st word, and use letter to generate & antonym (Full) Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 26

  27. Generation Effect: Slamecka & Graf (1978) Generate Condition: Hot - C_____ Fast - S____ (subjects generate second word given first letter and a rule such as antonym) Read Condition: Hot - Cold Fast - Slow Result: Recall/recognize better for generated than read words Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 27

  28. Generation Effect: Slamecka & Graf (1978) Defined: Information you generate is better remembered than information you only hear or read. Explanation: Depth of Processing – generation condition requires deeper processing than read condition Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 28

  29. Levels of Processing: Craik & Lockhart (1972) • New processing model for understanding human memory. • Essence of Levels: • emphasis on processes, not stores • memory is an outgrowth of perception/processing • shallow (‘perceptual’) vs. deep (‘meaningful’) processing Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 29

  30. Generation Effect: Slamecka & Graf (1978) • Generation Effect: • Gen > Read • LoP Effect • Syn (deep) > Rhy (shallow) Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 30

  31. LoP: Craik & Lockhart, 1972 SHALLOW Sensory Analyses (physical properties) Pattern Recognition (stimulus identification) Elaborative Processing DEEP(imagery, associations) Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 31

  32. LoP: Hyde & Jenkins (1973) • Tasks: • study – perform orienting task • test free recall • Design: Orienting X Learning (+no orienting control) very shallow incidental shallow intentional deep • Materials: 24 words; 1 word/3 s Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 32

  33. Hyde & Jenkins (1969) • varied depth of processing: • count e’s • count # of letters • make pleasantness judgment • varied intention to learn: • just do the above task (incidental) • do the task and learn the list (incid + intent) • learn the list (intentional-only) Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 33

  34. Hyde & Jenkins (1969) Incidental Intentional Intentional + Task + Task Only Pleasantness(semantic) # of Letters(nonsemantic) “e” Sound(nonsemantic) • LoP affected • Intention did not • semantic process ≈ intentional study Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 34

  35. LoP: Craik & Tulving, 1975 Encoding Question (trout or kite) Level of Analysis Is word in uppercase? Structural Rhyme with “shout”? Phonemic Does word fit in the Semantic sentence “She ate the _________”? Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 35

  36. LoP: Craik and Tulving, 1975 Yes No Proportion Of Words Correctly Recognized Case Rhyme Sentence Level of Processing Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 36

  37. Craik & Lockhart’s Interperation • Cog system organized hierarchically • input processed @ different levels: sensory  semantic • product of earlier analysis is input to latter analysis • Memory trace “simply [a] record of those analysis” “deeper more semantic analysis yields records that are more durable.” =========================================== But why? Traces: • richer, more elaborate – “more stuff” • semantic encoding more distinctive Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 37

  38. Criticisms of Levels Nelson (1977) : • circularity = there is no independent measure of depth in the framework • how can you rank order these “levels”? • Is it green? • Is it an animal? • Does it contain an R? • Is it GORF reversed? • Does it rhyme with DOG? Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 38

  39. Value of Levels • places emphasis on processes • introduced a technique—incidental learning with an orienting task—for studying encoding processes • fits well with transfer appropriate processing view. Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 39

  40. Context & Memory • Context: -- stimuli present “at the same time” as the target eventn = content + contextni + contextnj… Context encoded (almost) automatically w/ content • encoding context can serve as retrieval path • test context can serve as a retrieval cue General Principle: when test context ≈ study context,performance  Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 40

  41. Two Types of Contexts • Independent – “The information [setting] is stored together w/ the trace of the stimulus [focal element], but does not fundamentally change the trace.” – Baddeley, p. 287 • external – environmental, location • internal – physiological, emotional • Interactive – “An interactive encoding occurs when the context actually changes the way in which the stimulus [focal element] is encoded.” -- Baddeley p. 287 • semantic: strawberry – JAM vs traffic – JAM Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 41

  42. Two Types of Contexts • Independent • external – environmental, location • internal – physiological, emotional • Interactive • semantic: strawberry – JAM vs traffic – JAM Encoding Specificity Principle: “The probability of recalling an item at test depends on the similarity of its encoding at test and its encoding at study” -- Anderson, p 206 Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 42

  43. State-Dependent Memory General Approach for studying context effects: materials studied in StateX materials tested in StateX or StateY State-dependent memory effect observed when memory is better when study & test states match than when they mismatch. Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 43

  44. Context-Dependent Memory:Godden & Baddeley, 1975 Study X Test . land land underwater underwater =========================================== Participants: 16 divers Materials: 40 words Results: LL >> LU UU >> UL Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 44

  45. Mood-Congruent Memory Eich & Metcalfe (1989) • Induce mood by using music. • Read or generate during study Study-Test Design: Study X Test . happy happy sad sad Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 45

  46. Mood Congruence: Eich & Metcalf (1989) Results: • Generation Effect: • generate >> read • Mood Congruence: • H/H >> H/S • S/S >> S/H • “floor” effect for read condition? Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 46

  47. State-Dependent Memory: Alcohol Goodwin et al (1969) • Manipulation: 10 oz of 80 proof vodka; 24 hr study-test delay • Standard 2 X 2: (I)ntoxicated/I, S(ober)/S, I/S, S/I • Results: (a) S/S < SI; (b) I/I < I/S; (c) S/I < I/I • Point (C) encoding better when sober. Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 47

  48. State-Dependent Memory: Marijuana Eich et al (1975) • Manipulation: m(arijuana) vs t(obacco); 4 hr study-test delay. • Standard 2 X 2: m/m, t/t, m/t, t/m • Results: (a) t/t > t/m; (b) m/m >m/t; (c) t/m > m/m • Point (C) encoding better when straight. Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 48

  49. State-dependent Memory State-dependent effect strong for recall than recognition. • Reason: recall requires more cues, and state provides context cues Sober@study >> Blasted@study, regardless of test state. • Reason: attention, comprehension, & elaboration processes more effective when sober. Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 49

  50. Interactive Contexts General idea: • event traces encode meaning • meaning emerges from the meanings of the focal element and its semantic context. • retrieval cues that access encoded meaning will be more effective than those that do not Retrieval Cue: • A hint that can be used to evoke an item that has been learnt but cannot be spontaneously recalled Psyco 350 Lec #7 – Slide 50

More Related