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RTI Teams: Best Practices in Secondary Mathematics Interventions Jim Wright www.interventioncentral.org. ‘Advanced Math’ Quotes from Yogi Berra—. “Ninety percent of the game is half mental." “Pair up in threes."
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RTI Teams: Best Practicesin Secondary MathematicsInterventionsJim Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
‘Advanced Math’ Quotes from Yogi Berra— • “Ninety percent of the game is half mental." • “Pair up in threes." • “You give 100 percent in the first half of the game, and if that isn't enough in the second half you give what's left.”
Secondary Students: Unique Challenges… Struggling learners in middle and high school may: • Have significant deficits in basic academic skills • Lack higher-level problem-solving strategies and concepts • Present with issues of school motivation • Show social/emotional concerns that interfere with academics • Have difficulty with attendance • Are often in a process of disengaging from learning even as adults in school expect that those students will move toward being ‘self-managing’ learners…
Overlap Between ‘Policy Pathways’ & RTI Goals: Recommendations for Schools to Reduce Dropout Rates • A range of high school learning options matched to the needs of individual learners: ‘different schools for different students’ • Strategies to engage parents • Individualized graduation plans • ‘Early warning systems’ to identify students at risk of school failure • A range of supplemental services/’intensive assistance strategies’ for struggling students • Adult advocates to work individually with at-risk students to overcome obstacles to school completion Source: Bridgeland, J. M., DiIulio, J. J., & Morison, K. B. (2006). The silent epidemic: Perspectives of high school dropouts. Seattle, WA: Gates Foundation. Retrieved on May 4, 2008, from http://www.gatesfoundation.org/nr/downloads/ed/TheSilentEpidemic3-06FINAL.pdf
Potential ‘Blockers’ of Higher-Level Math Problem-Solving: A Sampler • Limited reading skills • Failure to master--or develop automaticity in– basic math operations • Lack of knowledge of specialized math vocabulary (e.g., ‘quotient’) • Lack of familiarity with the specialized use of known words (e.g., ‘product’) • Inability to interpret specialized math symbols (e.g., ‘4 < 2’) • Difficulty ‘extracting’ underlying math operations from word/story problems • Difficulty identifying and ignoring extraneous information included in word/story problems
How Do We Reach Low-Performing Math Students?: Instructional Recommendations Important elements of math instruction for low-performing students: • “Providing teachers and students with data on student performance” • “Using peers as tutors or instructional guides” • “Providing clear, specific feedback to parents on their children’s mathematics success” • “Using principles of explicit instruction in teaching math concepts and procedures.” p. 51 Source:Baker, S., Gersten, R., & Lee, D. (2002).A synthesis of empirical research on teaching mathematics to low-achieving students. The Elementary School Journal, 103(1), 51-73..
What Are Appropriate Content-Area Tier 1 Universal Interventions for Secondary Schools? “High schools need to determine what constitutes high-quality universal instruction across content areas. In addition, high school teachers need professional development in, for example, differentiated instructional techniques that will help ensure student access to instruction interventions that are effectively implemented.” Source: Duffy, H. (August 2007). Meeting the needs of significantly struggling learners in high school. Washington, DC: National High School Center. Retrieved from http://www.betterhighschools.org/pubs/ p. 9
Math Intervention Ideas for Secondary ClassroomsJim Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
Comprehending Math Vocabulary: The Barrier of Abstraction “…when it comes to abstract mathematical concepts, words describe activities or relationships that often lack a visual counterpart. Yet studies show that children grasp the idea of quantity, as well as other relational concepts, from a very early age…. As children develop their capacity for understanding, language, and its vocabulary, becomes a vital cognitive link between a child’s natural sense of number and order and conceptual learning. ” -Chard, D. (n.d.) Source: Chard, D. (n.d.. Vocabulary strategies for the mathematics classroom. Retrieved November 23, 2007, from http://www.eduplace.com/state/pdf/author/chard_hmm05.pdf.
Math Vocabulary: Classroom (Tier I) Recommendations • Preteach math vocabulary. Math vocabulary provides students with the language tools to grasp abstract mathematical concepts and to explain their own reasoning. Therefore, do not wait to teach that vocabulary only at ‘point of use’. Instead, preview relevant math vocabulary as a regular a part of the ‘background’ information that students receive in preparation to learn new math concepts or operations. • Model the relevant vocabulary when new concepts are taught. Strengthen students’ grasp of new vocabulary by reviewing a number of math problems with the class, each time consistently and explicitly modeling the use of appropriate vocabulary to describe the concepts being taught. Then have students engage in cooperative learning or individual practice activities in which they too must successfully use the new vocabulary—while the teacher provides targeted support to students as needed. • Ensure that students learn standard, widely accepted labels for common math terms and operations and that they use them consistently to describe their math problem-solving efforts. Source: Chard, D. (n.d.. Vocabulary strategies for the mathematics classroom. Retrieved November 23, 2007, from http://www.eduplace.com/state/pdf/author/chard_hmm05.pdf.
Promoting Math Vocabulary: Other Guidelines • Create a standard list of math vocabulary for each grade level (elementary) or course/subject area (for example, geometry). • Periodically check students’ mastery of math vocabulary (e.g., through quizzes, math journals, guided discussion, etc.). • Assist students in learning new math vocabulary by first assessing their previous knowledge of vocabulary terms (e.g., protractor; product) and then using that past knowledge to build an understanding of the term. • For particular assignments, have students identify math vocabulary that they don’t understand. In a cooperative learning activity, have students discuss the terms. Then review any remaining vocabulary questions with the entire class. • Encourage students to use a math dictionary in their vocabulary work. • Make vocabulary a central part of instruction, curriculum, and assessment—rather than treating as an afterthought. Source: Adams, T. L. (2003). Reading mathematics: More than words can say. The Reading Teacher, 56(8), 786-795.
Vocabulary: Why This Instructional Goal is Important As vocabulary terms become more specialized in content area courses, students are less able to derive the meaning of unfamiliar words from context alone. Students must instead learn vocabulary through more direct means, including having opportunities to explicitly memorize words and their definitions. Students may require 12 to 17 meaningful exposures to a word to learn it.
Enhance Vocabulary Instruction Through Use of Graphic Organizers or Displays: A Sampling Teachers can use graphic displays to structure their vocabulary discussions and activities (Boardman et al., 2008; Fisher, 2007; Texas Reading Initiative, 2002).
4-Square Graphic Display The student divides a page into four quadrants. In the upper left section, the student writes the target word. In the lower left section, the student writes the word definition. In the upper right section, the student generates a list of examples that illustrate the term, and in the lower right section, the student writes ‘non-examples’ (e.g., terms that are the opposite of the target vocabulary word).
Semantic Word Definition Map The graphic display contains sections in which the student writes the word, its definition (‘what is this?’), additional details that extend its meaning (‘What is it like?’), as well as a listing of examples and ‘non-examples’ (e.g., terms that are the opposite of the target vocabulary word).
Semantic Feature Analysis A target vocabulary term is selected for analysis in this grid-like graphic display. Possible features or properties of the term appear along the top margin, while examples of the term are listed ion the left margin. The student considers the vocabulary term and its definition. Then the student evaluates each example of the term to determine whether it does or does not match each possible term property or element.
Semantic Feature Analysis Example • VOCABULARY TERM: TRANSPORTATION
Comparison/Contrast (Venn) Diagram Two terms are listed and defined. For each term, the student brainstorms qualities or properties or examples that illustrate the term’s meaning. Then the student groups those qualities, properties, and examples into 3 sections: • items unique to Term 1 • items unique to Term 2 • items shared by both terms
Provide Regular In-Class Instruction and Review of Vocabulary Terms, Definitions Present important new vocabulary terms in class, along with student-friendly definitions. Provide ‘example sentences’/contextual sentences to illustrate the use of the term. Assign students to write example sentences employing new vocabulary to illustrate their mastery of the terms.
Generate ‘Possible Sentences’ The teacher selects 6 to 8 challenging new vocabulary terms and 4 to 6 easier, more familiar vocabulary items relevant to the lesson. Introduce the vocabulary terms to the class. Have students write sentences that contain at least two words from the posted vocabulary list. Then write examples of student sentences on the board until all words from the list have been used. After the assigned reading, review the ‘possible sentences’ that were previously generated. Evaluate as a group whether, based on the passage, the sentence is ‘possible’ (true) in its current form. If needed, have the group recommend how to change the sentence to make it ‘possible’.
Provide Dictionary Training The student is trained to use an Internet lookup strategy to better understand dictionary or glossary definitions of key vocabulary items. • The student first looks up the word and its meaning(s) in the dictionary/glossary. • If necessary, the student isolates the specific word meaning that appears to be the appropriate match for the term as it appears in course texts and discussion. • The student goes to an Internet search engine (e.g., Google) and locates at least five text samples in which the term is used in context and appears to match the selected dictionary definition.
Math Instruction: Unlock the Thoughts of Reluctant Students Through Class Journaling Students can effectively clarify their knowledge of math concepts and problem-solving strategies through regular use of class ‘math journals’. • At the start of the year, the teacher introduces the journaling weekly assignment in which students respond to teacher questions. • At first, the teacher presents ‘safe’ questions that tap into the students’ opinions and attitudes about mathematics (e.g., ‘How important do you think it is nowadays for cashiers in fast-food restaurants to be able to calculate in their head the amount of change to give a customer?”). As students become comfortable with the journaling activity, the teacher starts to pose questions about the students’ own mathematical thinking relating to specific assignments. Students are encouraged to use numerals, mathematical symbols, and diagrams in their journal entries to enhance their explanations. • The teacher provides brief written comments on individual student entries, as well as periodic oral feedback and encouragement to the entire class. • Teachers will find that journal entries are a concrete method for monitoring student understanding of more abstract math concepts. To promote the quality of journal entries, the teacher might also assign them an effort grade that will be calculated into quarterly math report card grades. Source: Baxter, J. A., Woodward, J., & Olson, D. (2005). Writing in mathematics: An alternative form of communication for academically low-achieving students. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 20(2), 119–135.
Applied Math Problems: Rationale • Applied math problems (also known as ‘story’ or ‘word’ problems) are traditional tools for having students apply math concepts and operations to ‘real-world’ settings.
Math Intervention: Tier I: High School: Peer Guided Pause • Students are trained to work in pairs. • At one or more appropriate review points in a math lecture, the instructor directs students to pair up to work together for 4 minutes. • During each Peer Guided Pause, students are given a worksheet that contains one or more correctly completed word or number problems illustrating the math concept(s) covered in the lecture. The sheet also contains several additional, similar problems that pairs of students work cooperatively to complete, along with an answer key. • Student pairs are reminded to (a) monitor their understanding of the lesson concepts; (b) review the correctly math model problem; (c) work cooperatively on the additional problems, and (d) check their answers. The teacher can direct student pairs to write their names on the practice sheets and collect them to monitor student understanding. Source: Hawkins, J., & Brady, M. P. (1994). The effects of independent and peer guided practice during instructional pauses on the academic performance of students with mild handicaps. Education & Treatment of Children, 17 (1), 1-28.
Applied Problems: Encourage Students to ‘Draw’ the Problem Making a drawing of an applied, or ‘word’, problem is one easy heuristic tool that students can use to help them to find the solution and clarify misunderstandings. • The teacher hands out a worksheet containing at least six word problems. The teacher explains to students that making a picture of a word problem sometimes makes that problem clearer and easier to solve. • The teacher and students then independently create drawings of each of the problems on the worksheet. Next, the students show their drawings for each problem, explaining each drawing and how it relates to the word problem. The teacher also participates, explaining his or her drawings to the class or group. • Then students are directed independently to make drawings as an intermediate problem-solving step when they are faced with challenging word problems. NOTE: This strategy appears to be more effective when used in later, rather than earlier, elementary grades. Source: Hawkins, J., Skinner, C. H., & Oliver, R. (2005). The effects of task demands and additive interspersal ratios on fifth-grade students’ mathematics accuracy. School Psychology Review, 34, 543-555..
Applied Problems: Individualized Self-Correction Checklists Students can improve their accuracy on particular types of word and number problems by using an ‘individualized self-instruction checklist’ that reminds them to pay attention to their own specific error patterns. • The teacher meets with the student. Together they analyze common error patterns that the student tends to commit on a particular problem type (e.g., ‘On addition problems that require carrying, I don’t always remember to carry the number from the previously added column.’). • For each type of error identified, the student and teacher together describe the appropriate step to take to prevent the error from occurring (e.g., ‘When adding each column, make sure to carry numbers when needed.’). • These self-check items are compiled into a single checklist. Students are then encouraged to use their individualized self-instruction checklist whenever they work independently on their number or word problems. Source: Pólya, G. (1945). How to solve it. Princeton University Press: Princeton, N.J.
Interpreting Math Graphics: A Reading Comprehension Intervention
Housing Price Index = 171 in 2005 Housing Price Index = 100 in 1987 Housing Bubble Graphic:New York Times23 September 2007
Classroom Challenges in Interpreting Math Graphics When encountering math graphics, students may : • expect the answer to be easily accessible when in fact the graphic may expect the reader to interpret and draw conclusions • be inattentive to details of the graphic • treat irrelevant data as ‘relevant’ • not pay close attention to questions before turning to graphics to find the answer • fail to use their prior knowledge both to extend the information on the graphic and to act as a possible ‘check’ on the information that it presents. Source: Mesmer, H.A.E., & Hutchins, E.J. (2002). Using QARs with charts and graphs. The Reading Teacher, 56, 21–27.
Using Question-Answer Relationships (QARs) to Interpret Information from Math Graphics Students can be more savvy interpreters of graphics in applied math problems by applying the Question-Answer Relationship (QAR) strategy. Four Kinds of QAR Questions: • RIGHT THERE questions are fact-based and can be found in a single sentence, often accompanied by 'clue' words that also appear in the question. • THINK AND SEARCH questions can be answered by information in the text but require the scanning of text and making connections between different pieces of factual information. • AUTHOR AND YOU questions require that students take information or opinions that appear in the text and combine them with the reader's own experiences or opinions to formulate an answer. • ON MY OWN questions are based on the students' own experiences and do not require knowledge of the text to answer. Source: Mesmer, H.A.E., & Hutchins, E.J. (2002). Using QARs with charts and graphs. The Reading Teacher, 56, 21–27.
Using Question-Answer Relationships (QARs) to Interpret Information from Math Graphics: 4-Step Teaching Sequence • DISTINGUISHING DIFFERENT KINDS OF GRAPHICS. Students are taught to differentiate between common types of graphics: e.g., table (grid with information contained in cells), chart (boxes with possible connecting lines or arrows), picture (figure with labels), line graph, bar graph. Students note significant differences between the various graphics, while the teacher records those observations on a wall chart. Next students are given examples of graphics and asked to identify which general kind of graphic each is. Finally, students are assigned to go on a ‘graphics hunt’, locating graphics in magazines and newspapers, labeling them, and bringing to class to review. Source: Mesmer, H.A.E., & Hutchins, E.J. (2002). Using QARs with charts and graphs. The Reading Teacher, 56, 21–27.
Using Question-Answer Relationships (QARs) to Interpret Information from Math Graphics: 4-Step Teaching Sequence • INTERPRETING INFORMATION IN GRAPHICS. Students are paired off, with stronger students matched with less strong ones. The teacher spends at least one session presenting students with examples from each of the graphics categories. The presentation sequence is ordered so that students begin with examples of the most concrete graphics and move toward the more abstract: Pictures > tables > bar graphs > charts > line graphs. At each session, student pairs examine graphics and discuss questions such as: “What information does this graphic present? What are strengths of this graphic for presenting data? What are possible weaknesses?” Source: Mesmer, H.A.E., & Hutchins, E.J. (2002). Using QARs with charts and graphs. The Reading Teacher, 56, 21–27.
Using Question-Answer Relationships (QARs) to Interpret Information from Math Graphics: 4-Step Teaching Sequence • LINKING THE USE OF QARS TO GRAPHICS. Students are given a series of data questions and correct answers, with each question accompanied by a graphic that contains information needed to formulate the answer. Students are also each given index cards with titles and descriptions of each of the 4 QAR questions: RIGHT THERE, THINK AND SEARCH, AUTHOR AND YOU, ON MY OWN. Working in small groups and then individually, students read the questions, study the matching graphics, and ‘verify’ the answers as correct. They then identify the type question being asked using their QAR index cards. Source: Mesmer, H.A.E., & Hutchins, E.J. (2002). Using QARs with charts and graphs. The Reading Teacher, 56, 21–27.
Using Question-Answer Relationships (QARs) to Interpret Information from Math Graphics: 4-Step Teaching Sequence • USING QARS WITH GRAPHICS INDEPENDENTLY. When students are ready to use the QAR strategy independently to read graphics, they are given a laminated card as a reference with 6 steps to follow: • Read the question, • Review the graphic, • Reread the question, • Choose a QAR, • Answer the question, and • Locate the answer derived from the graphic in the answer choices offered. Students are strongly encouraged NOT to read the answer choices offered until they have first derived their own answer, so that those choices don’t short-circuit their inquiry. Source: Mesmer, H.A.E., & Hutchins, E.J. (2002). Using QARs with charts and graphs. The Reading Teacher, 56, 21–27.
Importance of Metacognitive Strategy Use… “Metacognitive processes focus on self-awareness of cognitive knowledge that is presumed to be necessary for effective problem solving, and they direct and regulate cognitive processes and strategies during problem solving…That is, successful problem solvers, consciously or unconsciously (depending on task demands), use self-instruction, self-questioning, and self-monitoring to gain access to strategic knowledge, guide execution of strategies, and regulate use of strategies and problem-solving performance.” p. 231 Source: Montague, M. (1992). The effects of cognitive and metacognitive strategy instruction on the mathematical problem solving of middle school students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, 230-248.
Elements of Metacognitive Processes “Self-instruction helps students to identify and direct the problem-solving strategies prior to execution. Self-questioning promotes internal dialogue for systematically analyzing problem information and regulating execution of cognitive strategies. Self-monitoring promotes appropriate use of specific strategies and encourages students to monitor general performance. [Emphasis added].” p. 231 Source: Montague, M. (1992). The effects of cognitive and metacognitive strategy instruction on the mathematical problem solving of middle school students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, 230-248.
Combining Cognitive & Metacognitive Strategies to Assist Students With Mathematical Problem Solving Solving an advanced math problem independently requires the coordination of a number of complex skills. The following strategies combine both cognitive and metacognitive elements (Montague, 1992; Montague & Dietz, 2009). First, the student is taught a 7-step process for attacking a math word problem (cognitive strategy). Second, the instructor trains the student to use a three-part self-coaching routine for each of the seven problem-solving steps (metacognitive strategy).
Cognitive Portion of Combined Problem Solving Approach In the cognitive part of this multi-strategy intervention, the student learns an explicit series of steps to analyze and solve a math problem. Those steps include: • Reading the problem. The student reads the problem carefully, noting and attempting to clear up any areas of uncertainly or confusion (e.g., unknown vocabulary terms). • Paraphrasing the problem. The student restates the problem in his or her own words. • ‘Drawing’ the problem. The student creates a drawing of the problem, creating a visual representation of the word problem. • Creating a plan to solve the problem. The student decides on the best way to solve the problem and develops a plan to do so. • Predicting/Estimating the answer. The student estimates or predicts what the answer to the problem will be. The student may compute a quick approximation of the answer, using rounding or other shortcuts. • Computing the answer. The student follows the plan developed earlier to compute the answer to the problem. • Checking the answer. The student methodically checks the calculations for each step of the problem. The student also compares the actual answer to the estimated answer calculated in a previous step to ensure that there is general agreement between the two values.
Metacognitive Portion of Combined Problem Solving Approach The metacognitive component of the intervention is a three-part routine that follows a sequence of ‘Say’, ‘Ask, ‘Check’. For each of the 7 problem-solving steps reviewed above: • The student first self-instructs by stating, or ‘saying’, the purpose of the step (‘Say’). • The student next self-questions by ‘asking’ what he or she intends to do to complete the step (‘Ask’). • The student concludes the step by self-monitoring, or ‘checking’, the successful completion of the step (‘Check’).
