Loana K. Mason American Printing House for the Blind Research in the Rockies June 2010

1. An Experimental Replication of Hand and Finger Usage Patterns among Congenitally Blind, Braille Reading Adults: A Pilot Study Loana K. Mason American Printing House for the Blind Research in the Rockies June 2010

2. Introduction Literacy is linked to positive life outcomes in education, employment, financial status, & self-esteem(Ryles, 1996) Post-school outcomes for people who are blind & visually impaired are extremely poor as indicated by an unemployment rate greater than 70%(AFB, 2010) Braille readers are not acquiring literacy skills at the same rate as their sighted peers (Emerson, Holbrook, & D’Andrea, 2009)

3. Problem Law mandates the use of research-based practices(NCLB, 2001) Lack of scientifically-based research on literacy for students with visual impairments (Ferrell, Mason, & Young, 2006) One experimental study contradicts current practices regarding braille mechanics(Ferrell, Mason, & Young, 2006)

4. Problem: Fluke or Fact? 14 congenitally blind braille readers between the ages of 8-10 were tested • Hand dominance • Sentence reading with… • Left index finger • Right index finger • Left middle finger • Right middle finger Found that participants read faster with left middle finger Hermelin & O’Connor, 1971

5. Literature Review 100+ years of literature on braille mechanics Mechanics Deemed Best by Practitioners • Use of both hands independently • Use of at least 4 fingers • Use of light pressure & smooth tracking Research is often inconclusive, contra-dictory, or based on observational data

6. Literature on Hand Usage Consensus that both hands results in fastest & most accurate reading Disagreement over the role that each hand plays Predominant Patterns of Hand Usage • Left = placeholder/Right = reader • Both hands parallel • Both hands parallel for majority of line • Independent hand usage • Both hands parallel & then one or both hands track backwards

7. Hand Usage Continued Hand Dominance Patterns • Left hand superiority • Right hand superiority • Equal hand superiority Emerging Patterns • Left-hand advantage for beginning readers • Left-hand advantage for struggling readers • Hand use may depend on task & familiarity

8. Literature on Finger Usage Index, middle, ring, & pinky fingers capable of tactile discrimination, but index & middle are most sensitive Index fingers of both hands believed to be primary reading fingers Little consensus over the role of the left versus the right reading fingers

9. Literature on Tracking Good braille readers… • Exert light pressure • Maintain a continuous left-to-right movement • Engage in little scrubbing or retracing Faint pattern has emerged which suggests that the left hand checks uncertainties or corrects decoding errors

10. Literature on Cerebral Processes Language Processing Spatial Processing X Spatial Processing Language Processing

11. Literature on Cerebral Processes & Braille Braille reading requires both language and spatial processing, & thus, it makes sense that good braille readers would use both hands Left hand superiority may indicate a reliance on individual symbol decoding Right hand superiority may indicate a reliance on language processing at the word/short phrase level

12. Literature on Braille Fluency Braille readers have consistently been shown to read slower than sighted peers This has typically been attributed to the inability of braille readers to chunk text Paucity of research available on strategies to increase fluency for braille readers

13. Research Questions Which pattern of hand usage & finger usage results in the greatest degree of fluency? Is there a relationship between handedness & hand usage patterns as indicated by the greatest degree of fluency? Is there a relationship between certain characteristics of braille instruction & braille reading fluency?

14. Research Design Constructive replication 2 factor (3x3), counterbalanced, within-subjects experiment Independent Variables • Hand usage • Finger usage Dependent Variable • Fluency = Correct WordsPer Minute (CWPM)

15. Participants Sampling Process • Congenitally blind adults braille readers utilized so as not to deplete the limited sample pool of children with visual impairments • E-mails sent to the coordinators of disability services at 4 Midwestern colleges with information to be sent to potential participants • Participants were paid $25 for voluntary participation

17. Data Collection Individual testing sessions arranged upon receipt of signed consent forms Baseline assessment conducted 9 treatment assessments conducted in random order Handedness assessed at midpoint through a variety of pre-designated physical tasks

18. Content of Assessments Braille Symbols • 63 in baseline • 7 in each treatment condition Graded Word List • 10 randomly chosen words from published IRIs Graded Reading Passage • Length ranges from 142 -252 words • Randomly selected from published IRIs

19. Instrumentation Randomly assigned assessments to randomly ordered treatment conditions Reader allowed to utilize preferred braille mechanics during baseline assessment No data on instrument reliability & validity for this study

20. Treatment Conditions

21. Braille Reading &Recording Stand Assessments brailled on transparent paper & dots darkened with marker Hand & finger movements video-taped from below the transparent surface Oral reading recorded

22. Data Analysis Recorded miscues & determined whether the miscues were significant or not Calculated CWPM Tallied reading patch activation in multiple finger conditions Determined handedness

23. Results forParticipant One

24. Isolated Finger Fluency

25. Total Fluency

26. Pre-Existing Hand & Finger Preferences Reading Patch Activation During Baseline • Symbols = right index • Words = right index • Passage = right index Handedness • Left on 6 out of 10 tasks

27. Hand Preferences During Dual Treatment Conditions

28. Finger Preferences During Dual Treatment Conditions

29. Results forParticipant Two

30. Isolated Finger Fluency

31. Fluency

32. Pre-Existing Hand & Finger Preferences Reading Patch Activation During Baseline • Symbols = left index • Words = left index • Passage = left index Handedness • Right on 10 out of 10 tasks

33. Hand Preferences During Dual Treatment Conditions

34. Finger Preferences During Dual Treatment Conditions

35. Results forParticipant Three

36. Isolated Finger Fluency

37. Fluency

38. Pre-Existing Hand & Finger Preferences Reading Patch Activation During Baseline • Symbols = left & right index • Words = left & right index • Passage = left & right index Handedness • Right on 10 out of 10 tasks

39. Hand Preferences During Dual Treatment Conditions

40. Finger Preferences During Dual Treatment Conditions

41. Discussion Preferred method used during baseline for all participants was the left & right index fingers but only both fingers were dominant for 1 participant Baseline not necessarily the most fluent method

42. Discussion Continued Best fluency for all participants obtained when using both index fingers While the most fluent method is similar to the preferred method used during the baseline, patterns of finger dominance vary across the two conditions

43. Discussion Continued Best fluency across all treatment conditions occurred while reading passages, which may support the theory that effective braille reading relies on more than symbol decoding Participant with lowest fluency did poorest on conditions using only the right hand & demonstrated a slight left index finger dominance

44. Discussion Continued Different pattern emerging than found by Hermelin & O’Connor

45. Limitations Small sample size prevents statistical analysis There may be an order effect since the treatment conditions were the same for all participants

46. Limitations Continued Hand & finger patterns for a variety of reading levels across a variety of ages & stages of learning to read were not examined in the pilot study Results may be tied more to the braille mechanics that most closely approximate the hand & finger usage patterns they have used for many years