Introduction

1. The concept of informationby Birger HjørlandVisiting professor in LatviaOctober 11, 2006 12.00-13.30

2. Introduction • "It is said that we live in an "Age of Information," • but it is an open scandal that there is no theory, • nor even definition, of information that is both broad • and precise enough to make such an assertion meaningful" • (Goguen, 1997)

3. Introduction • We use the term ”information” all the time. We speak about ”information seeking”, ”information retrieval”, ”organization of information” etc. As part of the scientific language of ”Information Science”. • However, there is not consensus about the meaning of that term (there is even no consensus that this is an important term for the field: Information Science). The differences in the understanding of the term are important for how we understand our tasks.

4. Introduction • Marcia Bates has recently (2005 and 2006) proposed a definition and an understanding of the concept of information. Here I will demonstrate that more useful conceptions have already been suggested in the literature of information science, and that the arguments put forward by the proponents of these views unfortunately have been ignored by Bates. • These different views are related to very different philosophical views. .

5. Introduction • The pragmatic philosophers suggest that all theoriesare provisional and justified or not justified by their utility. Do they meet our needs? So different theories could be useful for different purposes. • Thus, in order to make our thoughts clear, we should ask: What practical consequence does it make whether one or another view is taken as true? (Or whether one or another meaning is taken as true?). If no practical implications follow, our theory (or meaning) is of no consequence and thus not important. What are the implications of different definitions and understandings of information for the work of information professionals?

6. Introduction • The definition of information used by Bates is from Parker “Information is the pattern of organization of matter and energy” (quoted by Bates, 2006, p. 1033), who further writes: •  “Information is the pattern of organization of the matter of rocks, of the earth, of plants, of animal bodies, or of brain matter. Information is also the pattern of organization of the energy of my speech as it moves the air, or of the earth as it moves in an earthquake. Indeed, the only thing in the universe that does not contain information is total entropy; that alone is pattern-free” (emphasis in original). And: Information is “an objectively existing phenomenon in the universe.”

7. Introduction • An alternative understanding of information is presented in short and rejected by Bates: “One approach to information draws on Bateson's [1972] definition of information as a difference that makes a difference . A difference to whom or what? Here, I argue that we must begin prior to that understanding, begin even before a sensing animal detects or assigns meaning to an experienced difference. As we shall see, humans and other animals can usefully identify a number of distinct types of information even prior to meaning assignment. Later, we will relate this definition of information to a more familiar understanding of the term, addressing what happens when we become informed.” (Bates, 2006).

8. Objective or subjective? • 1. The objective understanding (Observer independent, situation independent). Versions of this view have been put forward by, for example, Parker, Dretske, Stonier] andBates. Bates’version implies: Any difference is information. • 2. The subjective/situational understanding. Versions have been put forward by, for example, Bateson, Yovits, Spang-Hanssen, Brier, Buckland, Goguen and Hjørland: This position implies: Information is a difference that makes a difference (for somebody or for something or from a point of view).

9. Objective or subjective? • The subjective/situational understanding implies: What is information for one person in one situation needs not be information for another person or in another situation. • This view of information as a noun is related to becoming informed (informing as a verb). Something is information if it is informative (or rather: something is information when it is informative). (This view is also considered by Bates, but is termed “information 2”).

10. Objective or subjective? • Bates has an example of a frosted window representing information. Before considering that example, let us review an example put forward by Hjørland (1997): • “A stone on a field could contain different information for different people (or from one situation to another). It is not possible for information systems to map all the stone´s possible information for every individual. Nor is any one mapping the one "true" mapping. But people have different educational backgrounds and play different roles in the division of labor in society. A stone in a field represents typical one kind of information for the geologist, another for the archaeologist. The information from the stone can be mapped into different collective knowledge structures produced by e.g. geology and archaeology.

11. Objective or subjective? • Information can be identified, described, represented in information systems for different domains of knowledge. Of course, there are much uncertainty and many and difficult problems in determining whether a thing is informative or not for a domain. Some domains have high degree of consensus and rather explicit criteria of relevance. Other domains have different, conflicting paradigms, each containing it own more or less implicate view of the informativeness of different kinds of information sources. “ (Hjørland, 1997, p. 111)

12. Objective or subjective? • In a similar way, it should be possible to say that a frosted window might be regarded as answers to different kinds of questions and thus represent different kinds of information (e.g. for the artist, the physicist and the meteorologist). The problem with understanding frosted windows as objective information is: what should the purpose be in representing this information in an information system? How does the concept of information serve us in relation to this example?

13. Objective or subjective? • These examples demonstrate in my opinion that the domain-specific understanding is the way of understanding most in correspondence with ordinary views of science and knowledge: Researchers in each domain looks at the world from a specific perspective and define and process information accordingly. Scientists do not just describe or collect differences mechanically. On the contrary, they usually describe differences from a theoretical point of view or from a stated purpose.

14. Objective or subjective? • While I do agree with Bates that, for example, genetic information is encoded in the DNA, I do not consider this information to be independent of the biological theories. It may be “objective” in the way that different observers describe it the same way (although I prefer to use the term intersubjective in this connection). But this objectivity (or intersubjectivity) is dependent on a scientific consensus in biology. It is only within this theoretical framework that DNA may be understood as information in an “objective” way).

15. Semiotics • “In the language used here, information can be seen as the raw material, the fodder, that goes into the process of semiosis, as well as into individual acts of interpretation. For example, in various cultures over the years, waving a hand toward oneself has come to mean, come here. Thus, a long-term semiotic process has resulted in that association being present in many human beings' minds. My culture shares that association. When, at a party, I interpret that hand motion from a friend across the room as a sign to come join him, I am selecting out a certain subset of all the information around me. From all the patterns of organization of sound, sight, smell, and touch that I experience in the room, I separate out the hand motion and read it as come here, and then heed the call “ (Bates, 2006).

16. Semiotics • Again: For Bates, the physical pattern of a moving hand is information, while in semiotics it is a sign if interpreted as such. An objective understanding of information, like Bates’ consider the hand motion a kind of information independent of whether it is observed or not and independent of how it is interpreted. In this way there is a conflict between whether somebody is being informed about that hand waving or not. The hand waving is information whether anybody is informed or not. Information as a noun is not by Bates linked to the verb to inform.

17. Semiotics • In order to cope with this problem Bates has to establish another concept, “information 2”, which is defined in this way: “Information 2: Some pattern of organization of matter and energy given meaning by a living being (or its constituent parts).” • Blair (2006) interprets at length for Information Science Wittgenstein's later philosophy. The position is rigorously sustained that the meanings ascribed to words do not arise from the words themselves, but arise from the ways in which words are used in discourses. The position that words have only meanings temporarily and situational given to them is compatible with Bates’ Information 2 but not with Information 1.

18. “Information 2” • Bates have thus two concepts: ”Information” (or ”information 1”) and ”Information 2”. She insists that information is not subjective/situational. • Information 2” may be seen as an indication of a problematic understanding of information, possibly a way of admitting that an objective conception of information cannot do the work we need it to do. Bates suggests that we understand "information" to be objective, while "information2" is subjective. By introducing two definitions: “information” and “information 2” one may say that Bates is trying to have it both ways.

19. “Information 2” • Consequently Bates should explain carefully when we need to speak about “information 1” and when we need to speak about “information 2”. In my opinion she fails to demonstrate that what we are working with in information science is “information 1”. My claim is that what we are working with in her terminology is “information 2”.

20. “Information 2” • Bates and I agree that we need the subjective concept of information, but we disagree on how is should be labeled because we disagree about the need for an objective understanding of information. In analyzing the practical implications, Bates does not maintain a clear argument for the usefulness of an objective understanding. By introducing "information 2" Bates uses the concept of meaning which is almost as difficult a concept as information itself, why it should not be used without a careful analysis and explication of its meaning

21. “Meaning” • Bates uses the concept of meaning which is almost as difficult a concept as information itself. There are different views of where to find the meaning of a text, for example: • Meaning is in the text • Meaning is in the writer • Meaning is in the reader. • These different views of text-meaning often lead to heated debates in semiotics, literary theory, the philosophy of language, and semantics. We see that the same problem of objectivity/subjectivity is related to the term meaning.

22. Information in computers • Bates defined: “Information 2: Some pattern of organization of matter and energy given meaning by a living being”. • In computers, the same string of characters, the same “pattern of organization of matter and energy” are “interpreted differently” by different programs and in different context. One string of characters may in one context mean a telephone number, in an other context a fax number. This example demonstrates more far-reaching problems with the objective understanding.

23. “Information theory” • "Information theory" (Shannon & Weaver, 1949) is also important to consider in this perspective. Although shortly discussed by Bates the problem of whether this theory is subjective or objective is not addressed. According to Qvortrup (1993) Shannon and Weaver were unclear as to whether they conceive information as a substance or as a sign. • "Thus, actually two conflicting metaphors are being used: The well-known metaphor of information as a quantity, like water in the water-pipe, is at work, but so is a second metaphor, that of information as a choice,

24. “Information theory” • , a choice made by an information provider, and a forced choice made by an information receiver. Actually, the second metaphor implies that the information sent isn't necessarily equal to the information received, because any choice implies a comparison with a list of possibilities, i.e. a list of possible meanings. Here, meaning is involved, thus spoiling the idea of information as a pure "Ding an sich". Thus, much of the confusion regarding the concept of information seems to be related to the basic confusion of metaphors in Shannon’s theory: is information an autonomous quantity, or is information always per se information to an observer?

25. “Information theory” • Actually, I don't think that Shannon himself chose one of the two definitions. Logically speaking, his theory implied information as a subjective phenomenon. But this had so wide-ranging epistemological impacts that Shannon didn't seem to fully realize this logical fact. Consequently, he continued to use metaphors about information as if it were an objective substance. This is the basic, inherent contradiction in Shannon's information theory. " (Qvortrup, 1993, p. 5).

26. The alternative: The situated understanding of information • Karpatschof (2000, p. 128ff) provides an understanding of information. In order to define this concept he introduces the concept of release mechanisms, being systems or organisms having at their disposal a store of potential energy, the systems being ”designed” to let this energy out in specific ways, whenever trigged by a signal fulfilling the specifications of the release mechanism. The signal that triggers a certain release mechanism is a low energy phenomenon fulfilling some release specifications.

27. The alternative: The situated understanding of information • The signal is thus the indirect cause, and the process of the release mechanism the direct cause of the resulting reaction, which is a high-energy reaction compared to the energy in the signal. Information is thus defined as a quality by a given signal relative to a certain mechanism. The release mechanism has a double function: (1) it reinforces the weak signal and (2) it directs the reaction by defining the functional value of a signal in the pre-designed system of the release mechanism.

28. The alternative: The situated understanding of information • Karpatschof’s understanding of information has many merits. Among them is that it explains the basic mechanism in computers as well as in living beings. It is also possible, as done by Hjørland (2002) to use it to explain basic principles in information systems and services, including in what Bates terms "the curatorial sciences". Karpatschof's understanding is also in important ways in accordance with views held by prominent contributors to information science such as Michael Buckland.

29. The alternative: The situated understanding of information

30. The alternative: The situated understanding of information • According to Buckland, things can be informative. A stump of a tree contains information about its age on its rings - as well as information about the climate during the lifetime of the tree. In similar ways, everything can be informative: "We conclude that we are unable to say confidently of anything that it could not be information" (Buckland, 1991, p. 50, emphasis in original).

31. The alternative: The situated understanding of information • But if everything is information, then the concept of information is all embracive. If the concept of information has no limits, it becomes too vague and useless. What kind of advise can that concept provide with regard to what to represent in information systems?

32. The alternative: The situated understanding of information • To say about something that it is informative means that this thing may answer a question for somebody. The informativeness is thus a relation between the question and the thing. No thing is inherently informative. To consider something information is thus always to consider it as informative in relation to some possible questions. We do not always realize this, because it is mostly implied. It is implied, for example, that a paper about a disease may help answering questions about that disease. It is less obvious, however, that ameteorite from outer space may answer questions about the origin of life.

33. The alternative: The situated understanding of information • A good deal of scientific knowledge is needed to understand why this is the case (and a claim about the informativeness of something is theory-dependent and may turn out to be wrong). In the wider sense, background knowledge is always important to establish the informativeness of any object (including documents and texts).

34. The alternative: The situated understanding of information •     “Conclusion: The analysis of the concept of information made above implies that informational objects should not only be analyzed and described according to an objectivistic epistemology. It is not sufficient to describe information according to universalistic principles, as permanent, inherent characteristics of knowledge. Instead, information must be analyzed, described and represented in information systems according to situational, pragmatic and domain-specific criteria." (Hjørland, 1997, p. 111).

35. The evolutionary and cultural point of view • Bates (2005) suggests an evolutionary framework for information science. Her evolutionary point of view is based on philosophical realism: "The first assumption is that there is a real universe out there, that we are not solipsists, that is, what we see as being outside ourselves is not a movie we are running in our minds, but an actual universe independent of ourselves." • These views are shared by the present author and by, for example, Karpatschof (2000).

36. The evolutionary and cultural point of view • One advantages of the activity-theoretical point of view as developed by the Russian psychologist Leontyev (1940/1981) is that the biological development is specified in levels, which may be interpreted as more advanced kinds of information processing mechanisms. He described the development of psychological functions as a set of functions developed by higher animals in order to improve their adaptation to the changing conditions of life and distinguished five stages or levels from primitive organisms to Homo sapiens:

37. The evolutionary and cultural point of view • 1. The stage of irritability is characteristic of the absorption of food particles through the surface of the body of one-celled animals. Leontyev does not see such behavior as evidence of something psychical. (It is a pre-form of psychological behavior). • 2.The stage of sensory psyche can be exemplified by insects, birds and fish. It is characterized by the ability of the organism to sense influences, but the animal cannot integrate different influences into a whole. Animals at this stage of development show stiff or rigid patterns of reactions, i.e. instinctive forms of behavior. Leontyev sees this stage as psychical in its most primitive form.

38. The evolutionary and cultural point of view • 3.The stage of perceptual psyche is first and foremost characterized by the perception of objects. The organism is now not just limited to sensing and responding to sound, light, simple forms, etc., but perceives specific objects (e.g. flies). This allows much more flexible forms of behavior directed towards that object. • 4.The stage of intellect is associated with actions, which presuppose the use of tools. The organism is no longer solely dependent on its own body. This stage is found in man and chimpanzees.

39. The evolutionary and cultural point of view •  5.  The stage of consciousness is specifically human. According to the theory of Leontyev it is associated with language and societal production. • What is described here can be interpreted as a theory of the development of biological stages of information utilization behavior from more primitive, specific and passive forms of sensing information towards more advanced, complex, flexible and active forms of information utilization.

40. The evolutionary and cultural point of view • Leontyev’s perspective are psychical and subjective phenomena naturalistic; they developed with birds, fish and insects, and further through evolution. Activity theory is in fact a semiotic theory (a biological-social semiotic theory). Organisms are seen as reacting to informative objects as signs[1]. Information is not a thing or substance but a sign. • [1]For Charles Sanders Peirce a sign is a triadic unity of something (the sign vehicle, e.g. a footprint) which stands to somebody (the interpretant) for something else (the object, e.g. that a person has passed by).

41. The evolutionary and cultural point of view • Most evolutionary theories suffer from a neglecting of human cultural development. They tend to regard human information processing in a biological perspective assuming species-general ways of processing information. This is also the case with Bates (2005). There is no discussion of how information processing in individuals is different by, for example, people in oral cultures compared to people in literate cultures. This is the important contribution of activity theory as outlined by, for example, Karpatschof (2000) and Hjørland (2002). The biological-evolutionary perspective is thus supplemented with a developmental view of information processing in the perspective of cultural history.

42. The evolutionary and cultural point of view • Compared to other species human beings are far less depending on their biological cognitive systems and much more depending on their cultural heritage. This is something strongly neglected by mainstream behavioral and cognitive theories from the 20th century. A person's capacity to process and store information is not just depending on her biological make-up, but also on the language and symbolic systems that the person masters. • This is empirically shown by cultural anthropologists like Goody (1987) and theoretically mostly developed in activity theory.

43. The evolutionary and cultural point of view • “The line of theory developed by Vygotsky . . . maintains that when an individual comes to master writing, the basic system underlying the nature of his mental processes is changed fundamentally as the external symbol system comes to mediate the organization of all his basic intellectual operations. Thus, for example, knowledge of a writing system would alter the very structure of memory, classification and problem-solving by altering the way in which these elementary processes are organized to include an external (written) symbol system.” (Goody, 1987, p. 205)

44. The evolutionary and cultural point of view • How, for example, our concepts are influenced by our languages is shown in the figure below. It shows that there is no one-to one relation between meanings in different languages. Languages affect the way we conceptualize the world. According to Hjelmslev (1943) puts each language arbitrary borders on reality, while activity theory finds that our symbolic systems tend to capture functional aspects or affordances in the things we perceive.

46. The evolutionary and cultural point of view • The view of activity theory is that meanings, signs and documents are developed to function in relation to standardized practices in communities. We use, e.g. the Bible and the Hymn Book in our standardized religious practices. We use textbooks in our standardized teaching practices, law books in standardized legal practices etc. Concepts and documents have more or less stable functional values in relation to such standardized practices.

47. The evolutionary and cultural point of view • There are of course always different views of whether such standardized practices should be changed or remain unchanged, and there are always different kinds of possible changes of those practices. Consequently there is a corresponding need for a change in meanings and documents. • Often scientific and technological development changes standardized practices in a rather uncontroversial way. In other cases, however, changes in practices are related to different political interests, to different theories or "paradigms".

48. The evolutionary and cultural point of view • Different paradigms tend to influence given practices in different ways, and by doing so they also tend to change our symbolic systems as well as our production of documents and the form, content and use of those documents. • The proper study of symbols and documents is thus based on the study of the functions and interests those documents are serving.

49. Critique of “behavioral” views • It is very naive and reductionistic to disregard such kinds of cultural inter-mediating factors in people's relationship with information. • The dominant traditions in both information science and in behavioral and cognitive sciences have, however, neglected such cultural aspects and just tried to study generalized persons' relation to something termed "information". This dominant approach may broadly be termed "behavioral" in spite of different attitudes to versions of behaviorism.

50. Critique of “behavioral” views • In this tradition people are expected to react to something in a specific, mechanical way without considering the culturally determined meanings and without considering the different goals and values in the meanings and in the documents. • This has, in my opinion, brought about a situation in which we have inherited very little useful knowledge from these areas on which to advance our field and practice.