The Origins of Modern Psychology

1. The Origins of Modern Psychology Chapter 1 Section 3

2. Modern Psychology • First laboratory devoted to the scientific study of psychology: University of Leipzig in Germany in 1879

3. Wundt and Structuralism

4. William Wundt (1832-1920) Trained as a physician Established 1st laboratory Mission= describe the contents of the conscious mind Study psychology the same way as other science

5. Structuralism Break contents of the mind into basic units Identify the structures of the conscious experience Describe its major components (feelings, sensations, and images)

6. Edward B. Tichener (1867-1927) Wundt’s student Brought structuralism to the U.S. Research method depended on a method called introspection- participants gave verbal reports of their conscious experiences.

7. Problems of Structuralism Patients had difficulty producing similar reports Raised questions: Is there any common elements of conscious experience? Replaced by other approaches Conscious experience not considered a legitimate subject for a long time

8. Functionalism Developed in the U.S. in late 1800s Concerned with the purposes of consciousness—what the mind does and why William James= “stream of consciousness” = can’t be broken down into elements= lose reality Want to see how people use information and adapt to their environment Applied psychology= practical aspects Peak in 1906-James Rowland Angell andRobert S. Woodworth

9. Gestalt Psychology Gestalt= “pattern,” “shape,” or “configuration” Emphasized that perception of a whole differs from that of the individual stimuli that make up the whole Challenged structuralism Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, and Kurt Koffka Began in Germany in 1912

10. Apparent Motion a rapid sequence of stationary images creates the illusion of movement, as in a movie Wertheimer described the visual illusion We perceive unified forms, rather than bits and pieces

11. Behavioral Perspective Focuses on observable behaviors Emphasizes the importance of learning in understanding how various behaviors occur

12. Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) Russian physiologist Studied digestion in dogs Noticed that dogs would salivate at sight of food or the sound of jangling keys= Learned association

13. James B. Watson (1878-1958) American psychologist Read Pavlov’s work Believed psychology should be concerned with observable behavior Developed and applied principles in the laboratory under strictly controlled conditions. Used laboratory animals at first and expanded to human participants

14. B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) Proponent of behaviorism “greatest contemporary psychologist” Behavior changes as a result of its consequences. Environmental consequences, rather than free will, shape human behavior. Goal is identify and change the environmental conditions that control behavior. Methods have used to teach people with schizophrenia to speak, improve safety in factories, to teach basic skills to the mentally retarded, and train animals.

15. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) Watsons’ contemporary Delved deeply beneath observable behaviors Profound impact on psychology but very controversial Trained as neurologist Patients suffered a variety of anxieties and disturbances

16. Psychodynamic Perspective Suggests that both normal and abnormal behaviors are determined primarily by unconscious forces Psychodynamic forces = interact with each other The unconscious mind exerted great control over behavior “slips of the tongue” Analysis of dreams—not always aware of true meaning

17. Early Childhood Experiences Major influence on personality development Freud gained great fame and notoriety by suggesting that people (even children) are driven by motives that are sexual in nature.

18. Psychoanalytic Therapy Freud first turned to hypnosis but not everyone can by hypnotized. Attempts to bring unconscious causes of distress to the conscious level. According to Freud, once the sources of distress are brought to awareness, they can be changed.

19. Problems Over time, both the psychodynamic and behavioral approaches were questioned. Neither gave room for personal freedom Behaviorist views of human nature were either neutral or negative. Psychodynamic saw behavior resulting from irrational forces that are not even under conscious control. Neither focuses on the creative potential and psychological health of human beings.

20. Humanistic Perspective Emphasizes free will and individual’s control of their own behavior More positive view of human nature View themselves as a “third force” because they are an alternative to the behavioral and psychodynamic perspectives in psychology.

21. Proponents Carl Rogers (1902-1987) Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) People have choices in their lives Instead of developing general principles, they sought to understand each person as a unique individual. Important principle: all human beings have a basic need to grow to their fullest potential.

22. The Physiological Perspective Special interest in the functioning of the nervous system (brain and neurons (nerves cells) Images of the brain have revealed that different areas of the brain have different tasks Recent years-influence of heredity and stress Stress has an influence on our health status.

23. The Evolutionary Perspective Charles Darwin (1859) – theory of evolution Principle of natural selection: strongest or most fit organisms are those who have adapted best to their environment; survive and reproduce Ask what role a physiological structure or behavior plays in helping the organism survive and adapt to its environment Successful applied: mate selection, aggression, kin selection, care of offspring, and parenting

24. Example When a cat is frightened, its hairs “stand on end.” An evolutionary researcher would want to understand how this behavior contributed to the survival of the species. The most plausible explanation is that when the hairs are erected, the animal looks larger and more intimidating to potential predators. Cats who were able to erect their hairs when frightened passed their genes on to future generations. A once-adaptive behavior persisted.

25. Aggression Aggressive organisms are able to acquire resources and defend their own territories. It is predicted that men display more direct aggression (hitting, kicking), whereas women will display more indirect aggression (gossiping, ostracizing). The evolutionary explanation centers on maternal involvement on the part of women. Indirect aggression minimizes the chances of retaliatory injury compared to direct aggression.

26. Functional Approach Evolutionary psychologists are interested in why certain physical structures developed and how they contribute to adaptation.

27. Comparative Approach Often evolutionary psychologist compare the use of a structure among species

28. The Cognitive Perspective Behaviorists did not study cognitive processes, but others disagreed that observable behavior should be the sole subject matter of psychology. Study higher mental processes such as thinking, knowing, and deciding to determine how we store and recall information, solve problems, and make decisions. Use more sophisticated techniques to examine brain functioning. Psychologist George Miller and Jerome Bruner established the Center for Cognitive Studies at Harvard University in 1960, and UlricNeisser published the book Cognitive Psychology in 1967. The appearance of a widely read article supporting the study of cognitive processes combined with the ability of the computer to simulate human thought processes, generated considerable interest and research.

29. The Cultural and Diversity Perspective

30. Male Dominated to Diverse The presence of women and minority psychologist sprovides a vivid contrast to the Caucasian, male-dominated field of only a few years ago. Numerous barriers for women and ethnic minorities in the past: not accepted in colleges or denied degrees

31. Examining “Truth” Psychologists are beginning to realize that the culture in which research is conducted; the gender, ethnicity, and personal biases of the researcher; and the gender and ethnicity of the research participants all influence our research results and contribute to our conception of “truth.”

32. Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930) student of William James who studied at Harvard denied a degree because she was a woman distinguished teaching career founded one of the 1st psychology laboratories in U.S. 1st women elected president of the American Psychological Association

33. Kenneth B. Clark (1914-2005) 1st African American elected president of the American Psychological Association in 1970 Noted for his research on the harmful effects of segregation Cited in Brown v. Board of Education

34. Richard Suinn 1st Asian American elected as president of the American Psychological Association in 1997

35. Contemporary Psychological Literature Gender issues Ethnic groups National cultures Sexual orientation, Persons with disabilities

36. Cultural Psychology Psychological Revolution: move towards cultural psychology We need to know what kinds of cross-cultural similarities exist in psychological principles and basic processes. Knowledge about these similarities should help us in our endeavors to apply these principles to improve our lives.

37. David Matsumoto “the psychological principles we derive about people may be consistent or discrepant across cultures.” To the extent that differences do exist, it is important for all of us to appreciate how cultural factors moderate our psychological processes. We can learn how our own viewpoint, developed within our own cultural framework, can distort our interpretation of other’s behaviors

38. Matsumoto, Kasri, and Kooken (1999) Cross-cultural study of the intensity of facial expressions of emotions in Americans and Japanese Americans exaggerated their ratings Previously, it had been assumed that the differences between the two cultures occurred because Japanese participants suppressed their ratings.

39. The Environmental, Population, and Conservation Perspective Increasing concerns about the effects of overpopulation on the quality of life and the quality of our environment. Applying psychological principles to help save the planet. Challenge: the task of increasing proenvironmental behavior Listserv: Email- conservation-psychology-request@umich.edu with subject: SUBSCRIBE

40. Present Day Psychology

41. Eclectic Approach Present-day psychologists do not align themselves strictly with one approach but combine several different approaches.

42. Employment Most psychology majors who complete their education with a B.A. or B.S. degree are employed by for-profit companies and not-for-profit organizations. The majority of psychologists with advanced degrees are either self-employed or work in some type of educational setting. A person cannot assume the title of psychologist unless he or she meets certain standards of education and training established by a state board. Most do not engage in research but in the application of psychology: health service provider or direct service specialties

43. Psychological Specialties

44. Clinical Psychology Specialize in helping people with behavioral or emotional problems to adjust to the demands of life Not psychiatrists After completing an undergraduate degree, clinical psychologists earn a doctoral degree (4 more years) They then complete an internship for at least 1 year to develop their diagnostic and therapeutic skills while being supervised by experienced psychologists

45. Psychiatry Psychiatrist are medical doctors who have earned an M.D. degree. After graduating from medical school, they complete a 3-year residency. They are trained in the medical assessment of disorders and are more likely to view the disorders as caused by medical conditions

46. Counseling Psychology Administer psychological tests and provide therapy Often work with clients who have less serious problems such as people who are having difficulty dealing with everyday problems such as a physical handicap or a vocational decision.

47. Research Psychologist Psychologist whose primary activity is to conduct and report the results of experiments Areas of specialty: animal behavior, biopsychology, cognitive processes, cross-cultural, developmental, educational, motivation, personality, psychometrics, sensation and perception, and social

48. Ethnocentrism The view that other cultures are an extension of one’s own Modern psychology is highly identified with the U.S.

49. Cross-Cultural Psychology Branch of psychology that seeks to determine if research results are universal

50. Careers School psychologist Industrial and organizational psychologist Consumer psychology Health psychology Forensic psychology Sports psychology neuropsychology