Cultural Frame Switching and Cognitive Performance in Bilingual Biculturals

1. Cultural Frame Switching and Cognitive Performance in Bilingual Biculturals Miriam M. Walsh Lorin Lachs, Ph.D. California State University, Fresno NASP 2011

2. NASP 02/23/2011 2 Statement of the Problem Culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students continue to be overrepresented Overrepresentation may be due to inappropriate identification Inappropriate identification may be due to a number of factors One possible factor is Cultural Frame Switching (CFS) Lack of research exploring the effects of CFS Understanding the possible effects of CFS is important to determine the validity of assessment Don�t worry � I will define this for you later Culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students make up a large percentage of students in public schools Compatible and incompatible Cultural Frame Switching* (CFS) can occur in bilingual biculturals Lack of research exploring the implications of CFS on cognitive loading and cognitive performance. Understanding the effects of CFS on cognitive performance is necessary for valid assessment for special education services. Exploration of this issue may support a child-centered services model over the current test-and-place model Don�t worry � I will define this for you later Culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students make up a large percentage of students in public schools Compatible and incompatible Cultural Frame Switching* (CFS) can occur in bilingual biculturals Lack of research exploring the implications of CFS on cognitive loading and cognitive performance. Understanding the effects of CFS on cognitive performance is necessary for valid assessment for special education services. Exploration of this issue may support a child-centered services model over the current test-and-place model

3. NASP 02/23/2011 3 Interpreting Through Culture Bilingual Biculturals Speak both ethnic and mainstream languages Internalize both ethnic and mainstream cultures (LaFromboise, Coleman, & Gerton, 1993; Laroche, Kim, Hui & Joy, 1996) Cultural Frames (D�Andrade, 1992) Consistent across cultural group Cultural Frame Switching Frames can be activated by language or cultural icons (Hong, Morris, Chiu, & Benet-Martinez, 2000; Luna, Ringberg, & Peracchio, 2008) Bilingual Biculturals Internalize both their ethnic culture and that of the mainstream (i.e., American) Speak both their ethnic language and that of the mainstream (i.e., English) For example�..American English (LaFromboise, Coleman, & Gerton, 1993; Laroche, Kim, Hui & Joy, 1996) Cultural Frames A network of cultural meanings that is consistent across cultural group members and that guides interpretation, attitude, values, and behavior (D�Andrade, 1992) Cultural Frame Activation Frames can be activated by language or cultural icons, thereby facilitating a culturally-mediated frame switch (Hong, Morris, Chiu, & Benet-Martinez, 2000; Luna, Ringberg, & Peracchio, 2008) Bilingual Biculturals Internalize both their ethnic culture and that of the mainstream (i.e., American) Speak both their ethnic language and that of the mainstream (i.e., English) For example�..American English (LaFromboise, Coleman, & Gerton, 1993; Laroche, Kim, Hui & Joy, 1996) Cultural Frames A network of cultural meanings that is consistent across cultural group members and that guides interpretation, attitude, values, and behavior (D�Andrade, 1992) Cultural Frame Activation Frames can be activated by language or cultural icons, thereby facilitating a culturally-mediated frame switch (Hong, Morris, Chiu, & Benet-Martinez, 2000; Luna, Ringberg, & Peracchio, 2008)

4. NASP 02/23/2011 4 Evidence for Cultural Frame Switching Chinese-Americans & Individualism-Collectivism (Hong, Morris, Chiu, & Benet-Martinez, 2000) Ethnic Greeks in Holland & Individualism- Collectivism (Pouliasi & Verkuyten, 2007) Hispanic-Americans & BFI (Ramirez-Esparza et al., 2006) 4 Hong 2000 examined Chinese-Americans� responses on a an individualism-collectivism scale Primed by culture: Chinese (great wall/flag) & American (Statue/flag) Responses were 4 Hong 2000 examined Chinese-Americans� responses on a an individualism-collectivism scale Primed by culture: Chinese (great wall/flag) & American (Statue/flag) Responses were

5. NASP 02/23/2011 5 CFS Directionality Compatible and Incompatible CFS Cheng (2005): Chinese-Americans divided into low and high BII Random assignment to four stereotype priming conditions Results: � Explain differences between low and high BIIExplain differences between low and high BII

6. NASP 02/23/2011 6 Ramifications of Cognitive Loading Cheng (2005) suggested incompatible CFS ? increased cognitive load Contrast effects require more cognitive capacity (Martin, Seta, & Crelia, 1990) Cognitive loading reduces reaction time and memory capacity (Dijksterhuis, Spears, & Lepinasse, 2001) Priming conditions (incompatible CFS) can create a greater cognitive load, and if cognitive loading reduces reaction time and memory capacity, it is possible that incompatible CFS will adversely affect the scores on cognitive assessments like those used in special education placement.

7. NASP 02/23/2011 7 The Current Study Purpose: Replicate and extend the literature on compatible and incompatible CFS Determine whether there is a decreased effect on cognitive performance when bicultural identity integration (BII) and priming interact to produce incompatible CFS

8. NASP 02/23/2011 8 Methodology Participants: 112 bilingual bicultural students Identify with both American and native cultures Speak both English and native language fluently 1st or 2nd- generation American Recruited from CSU Fresno�s Introduction to Psychology research pool

9. NASP 02/23/2011 9 Phase I Prescreening specified criteria Cultural orientation scale Language, familial, demographic questionnaire Bicultural Identity Integration Scale � Version One (BIIS-1) Distance scale: Level of separation and/or overlap I keep Mexican and American cultures separated. I feel part of a combined culture. Classifed participants High BII Low BII* Cultural orientation scale 3 item scale, 6-point Likert type scale Rate level of association with American, ethnic, and a possible third culture Bicultural Identity Integration Scale � Version One (BIIS-1) 8 item scale, 5-pt Likert type scale Subdivided into: Distance Scale (4 items) Separation and/or overlap of two cultures Used a priori for dividing participants into high and low BII Conflict Scale (4 items) Compatibility/incompatibility between two cultures Language, familial, demographic questionnaireCultural orientation scale 3 item scale, 6-point Likert type scale Rate level of association with American, ethnic, and a possible third culture Bicultural Identity Integration Scale � Version One (BIIS-1) 8 item scale, 5-pt Likert type scale Subdivided into: Distance Scale (4 items) Separation and/or overlap of two cultures Used a priori for dividing participants into high and low BII Conflict Scale (4 items) Compatibility/incompatibility between two cultures Language, familial, demographic questionnaire

10. NASP 02/23/2011 10

11. Research Hypotheses NASP 02/23/2011 11

12. Results

13. Distance Scale BII 13

14. Hypothesis 1: Processing Speed Compatible CFS > Incompatible CFS ANOVA IVs: BII (high, low) x American priming (+, - ) DV: Digit Span scaled scores Results Digit Symbol-Coding No significant differences Hypothesis not supported for distance scale BII x priming for SS Symbol Search No significant differences Hypothesis not supported for distance scale BII x priming for SS

15. Hypothesis 2: Working Memory Compatible CFS > Incompatible CFS ANOVA IVs: BII (high, low) x American priming (+, - ) DV: Digit Span scaled scores Results Digit Span No significant differences Hypothesis not supported for distance scale BII x priming for DS

16. Discussion No significant findings Another way to calculate BII Conflict scale NASP 02/23/2011 16

17. Bicultural Identity Integration (BII) Distance scale: Level of separation and/or overlap I keep Mexican and American cultures separated. I feel part of a combined culture. 1st generation competency Conflict scale: Level of compatibility and incompatibility I feel like someone moving between two cultures. I feel caught between the Chinese and American cultures. 2nd generation stressors (Benet-Martinez & Haritatos, 2005; Haritatos & Benet-Martinez, 2002) Current sample: 75.9% 2nd generation NASP 02/23/2011 17

18. Conflict Scale BII 18

19. Hypothesis 1: Processing Speed Compatible CFS > Incompatible CFS ANOVA IVs: BII (high, low) x American priming (+, - ) DV: DS-C & SS scaled scores NASP 02/23/2011 19

20. Processing Speed Measure: DS-C High BII group Positive vs. Negative Condition Significant difference t (77) = 2.35, p = .02, d = .53 20 Incompatible CFS in red Incompatible CFS in red

21. Processing Speed Measure: SS High BII group Positive vs. Negative Condition Significant difference t (77) = 2.16, p =.03, d = .49 21 Incompatible CFS in redIncompatible CFS in red

22. Hypothesis 2: Working Memory Compatible CFS > Incompatible CFS ANOVA IVs: BII (high, low) x American priming (+, - ) DV: Digit Span scaled scores NASP 02/23/2011 22

23. Summary of results Distance scale No significant differences Conflict scale High BII: + vs. � (DS-C & SS) Low BII: + vs. � Positive condition: high vs. low BII (DS-C) Negative condition: high vs. low BII (DS-C & SS) NASP 02/23/2011 23

24. Discussion Predictions are partially confirmed Results suggest some evidence for incompatible CFS < compatible CFS NASP 02/23/2011 24 Distance scale: Exposure to American and ethnic cultures (years) Linguistic proficiency Level of identification with mainstream culture Openness to cultural experiences Conflict scale: discrimination stress strained cultural relationships Distance scale: Exposure to American and ethnic cultures (years) Linguistic proficiency Level of identification with mainstream culture Openness to cultural experiences Conflict scale: discrimination stress strained cultural relationships

25. Discussion (continued) Unexpected results: no differences within conflict scale Low BII Negatively skewed sample Homogeneity of college students High BII characteristics Highly acculturated (Benet-Martinez & Haritatos, 2005; Cheng et al., 2006; Haritatos & Benet-Martinez, 2002) IQ (Guertin, Rabin, Frank, & Ladd, 1962) Highly motivated NASP 02/23/2011 25

26. Discussion (continued) Unexpected results: no significant findings for working memory measure Issues with group administration Ceiling Cheating NASP 02/23/2011 26

27. Implications Incompatible CFS may adversely affect processing speed measures Processing speed measures are often used in special education testing Measures used for testing should be reliable These results suggest different results across testing conditions Possible reduced reliability ? inappropriate identification of a disability? NASP 02/23/2011 27

28. Implications (continued) Studies suggest socioeconomic status, race, appearance, teacher perceived lack of parental involvement, cultural bias of instrument affect inappropriate identification ? possible overrepresentation (Artiles & Trent, 1994; Ortiz, 2008; Oswald et al., 1999; Patton, 1998 ; Vasquez-Nuttall et al., 2007) CFS may also play a role in overrepresentation Same conditions may have positive and negative effect on different groups NASP 02/23/2011 28

29. Implications (continued) Scores in average range for this highly motivated, college sample Differences in scores may be more pronounced in a diverse sample Results suggest possible need for more: Multimethod assessment Formative (CBM/RTI) assessment methods Across multiple samples and settings NASP 02/23/2011 29

30. NASP 02/23/2011 30 Implications (continued) Invalid assessment may lead to inappropriate placement Widens gap between ability and achievement Stifled social development if removed from same-age peers If the validity of tests is questionable, schools may move toward a child-centered service model rather than the current test-and-place model, which may: Reduce the delay of special education services Reduce the number of students labeled and mislabeled Contribute to positive outcomes for students with all levels of special needs

31. Implications (continued) Increase BII High BII = positive outcomes (Benet-Martinez & Haritatos, 2005; Haritatos & Benet-Martinez, 2002) Positive mainstream cultural experiences (Cheng, 2005) Help students reconcile cultural identities Identify effective & practical ways to consider acculturation and biculturalism in assessment NASP 02/23/2011 31

32. Conclusion Evidence suggests incompatible CFS may cause cognitive loading Cognitive loading adversely effects cognitive performance Incompatible CFS may reduce reliability of scores Practitioners should determine best ways to consider acculturation and biculturalism during the assessment process Greater need for formative/ RTI types of assessments across times and settings for valid assessment NASP 02/23/2011 32

33. Acknowledgements I would like to thank the following groups for their grant contributions to make this study and presentation possible: Department of Psychology, CSU Fresno Division of Graduate Studies, CSU Fresno Associated Students, CSU Fresno Thank you to Pearson, Inc. Research Participation Team for providing discounts related to study materials. Thank you to my dedicated thesis committee members for their guidance and encouragement: Lorin Lachs, Ph.D., Marilyn Wilson, Ph.D., & Robert Levine, Ph.D. Thank you to the Fresno State Language Behavior Lab for help with scoring, data entry, and feedback. NASP 02/23/2011 33

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40. Descriptive Statistics NASP 02/23/2011 40