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Dr Jacqui McKechnie

Learning & Motivation. Dr Jacqui McKechnie. Learning. Learning is a relatively permanent change of behaviour or knowledge that occurs as a result of experience. Classical Conditioning. Pavlov (1927)

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Dr Jacqui McKechnie

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  1. Learning & Motivation Dr Jacqui McKechnie

  2. Learning Learning is a relatively permanent change of behaviour or knowledge that occurs as a result of experience.

  3. Classical Conditioning Pavlov (1927) Pavlov was interested in how creatures made associations between events. He produced salivation from dogs as a response to the sound of a bell.

  4. Before conditioning (Part 1) Reflex: salivation food Neutral Stimulus: bell No response During conditioning (Part 2) bell sounded 0.5 - 1 sec before food salivation Evidence of conditioning (Part 3) Rings bell (conditioned stimulus) salivation

  5. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) a stimulus that has the ability to produce a specified response without conditioning (FOOD) Unconditioned Response (UCR) automatic unlearned reaction produced by the UCS (SALIVATION PRODUCED BY FOOD) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) an initially neutral stimulus that comes to produce a new response because it is associated with the UCS (BELL) Conditioned Response (CR) the response that results due to the association formed between the UCS & the CS (SALIVATION PRODUCED BY BELL)

  6. Extinction Repeatedly presenting the CS without the UCS leads to extinction of the response. Stimulus Generalisation Stimulus can be varied and still elicit the response. Significance of Stimulus If highly significant for safety of individual - very long time to extinguish. Second Order Conditioning Occurs when a CS is paired with a NS

  7. Some Applications of Classical Conditioning • Overcoming Phobias (systematic desensitisation) • Aversion Therapy E.g Antabuse Fighting Disease • Increases and decreases in immune responses can be classically conditioned Olness and Alder (1992) Buske-Kirschbaum (1994) • Placebo (NS) + Drug (UCS) -> Beneficial Effects (CR)

  8. Operant Conditioning Skinner (1938) Skinner was interested in how the consequences of a behaviour affected its repetition

  9. Operant - small action which can have an effect on the surrounding environment. A reinforcer will increase the probability that the operant behaviour will recur. Primary reinforcement Using a reward which satisfies a primary need such as food or sex. Secondary reinforcement Using a reward that doesn’t satisfy a primary need e.g. money. Token Economy Programme (Ayllon and Azrin, 1968)

  10. Positive Reinforcement getting a reward such as food or praise Negative Reinforcement avoiding something unpleasant such as pain Both types of reinforcers INCREASE certain behaviours. Punishment getting something unpleasant such as a smack Cost Response removing something pleasant such as a fine These REDUCE or suppress behaviour.

  11. Shaping Reward each successiveapproximation until the desired behaviour is demonstrated. Discriminative Stimulus Amount of change a stimulus can undergo and still elicit the response. Learned Helplessness Control is important in conditioning.

  12. Reinforcement Schedules How often the reward is given for demonstrating the desired behaviour. Continuous reinforcement - easy to extinguish Partial reinforcement - difficult Fixed Ratio E.g. Reward every 10 bar presses Fixed Interval E.g. Reward every five minutes Variable Ratio E.g. Reward a variable number of bar presses Variable Interval E.g Reward a variable interval of time

  13. Social Learning Observational or sociallearning- process of learning by watching others. Bobo Doll Study Bandura, Ross and Ross (1963)

  14. Vicarious Conditioning Being influenced by seeing or hearing about the consequences of others’ behaviour ie - if the behaviour is seen to be rewarded then it is more likely to be copied. What influences whether behaviour is modelled or not? • Attention • Ability to reproduce the behaviour • Retention • Motivation

  15. Motivation Motivation refers to the influences that govern the initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of behaviour.

  16. Theories of Motivation Instinct Theory McDougall (1908) Lorenz (1937) Freud (1938) • biological factors • behaviours present at birth which are important for survival Drive Reduction Theory Cannon (1932) Hull (1943) • biological factors • based on homeostasis and equilibrium

  17. Cognitive Consistency Theory Festinger (1957) • If a person has two thoughts which are inconsistent -> discomfort - cognitive dissonance • carry out behaviour to reduce this discomfort Arousal Theory Geen (1984) • maintain optimal level of arousal • differs from person to person People perform best with a moderate level of arousal.

  18. Yerkes-Dodson Law (Hebb, 1955) Efficiency of Performance Optimal Level Increasing alertness Increasing anxiety Level of Arousal

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