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The philosophy of education in Malaysia is education is the right of all children. Educational opportunities must be extended to children with disabilities. It is essential for teachers to deliver instruction and services to children with learning disabilities. MEMORY 1.0 Introduction.
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The philosophy of education in Malaysia is education is the right of all children. • Educational opportunities must be extended to children with disabilities. • It is essential for teachers to deliver instruction and services to children with learning disabilities. MEMORY1.0 Introduction
By Thomas C. Lorsbach, Sherry Wilson, and Jason F. Reimer Journal: Contemporary Educational Psychology Vol 21, p.447-466 (1996) Journal Article:Memory for Relevant and Irrelevant Information: Evidence for Deficient Inhibitory Processes in Language/ Learning Disabled Children
2.0 Summary The ability to selectively attend to relevant information while ignoring irrelevant information plays a critical role in memory. Language/learning disabled children experienced greater difficulty than nondisabled children inhibiting the activation of irrelevant information and sustaining the activation of relevant information.
3.0 Key Issues Discussed In The Article 3.1 Cognitive Problem (Information Processing) 3.2 Affective Problems (Self-esteem, Anxiety, Motivation) 3.3 Academic Problems (Reading Problems)
3.1 Cognitive Problem: Information Processing Sensory Register Sensing Attention Perception Long-Term Memory Short-Term Memory/ Working Memory Forgotten Forgotten Rehearsal and Coding Retrieval
3.1.1 Sensing Sensing involves the use of one or more of our senses to obtain information. 3.1.1.1 Sensory Register The sensory register holds all incoming information for approximately a second, just long enough for us to attend to and perceive it.
3.1.2 Attention Selective attention is the capacity to focus awareness on selected incoming stimuli. According to Tipper (1985), selective attention depends upon the joint operation of both activation and suppression mechanism.
3.1.3 Perception Perception can be defined as “the process of ‘recognizing’ a raw, physical pattern in sensory store as representing something meaningful”. Students who have perceptual disabilities usually have trouble interpretation and obtaining meaning from the stimuli in the environment.
3.1.4 Short-Term or Working Memory Memory is the ability to store and recall information. Short-term or working memory can be thought of as activated memory since it represents the information that is easily accessible. Working memory has a limited capacity in that we have the ability to store only a small amount of information.
It is believed that inhibitory processes are critical for the efficient operation of working memory in that inhibitory mechanisms suppress the access of irrelevant information into working memory and also quickly inhibit irrelevant information that has managed to enter working memory. 3.1.4 Short-Term or Working Memory
3.1.5 Long-Term Memory Long-term memory represents the information stored outside the attentional spotlight. Information is retrieved from long-term memory and transferred to working memory before it can be used to make responses. Information can be stored in long-term memory for an indefinite period of time. Students with learning disabilities frequently experience problems in memory.
3.1.6 Executive Functioning or Metacognition Executive Functioning = Metacognition Metacognition refers to one’s knowledge of one’s cognition. (Brown, 1980). Metacognition is “thinking about thinking” which entails such as planning, monitoring, assessing and evaluating. (Beyer, 1983)
3.2 Affective Problems Affect refers to emotion or feeling. Understanding how human beings being feel and respond and believe and value is an exceedingly important.
3.2.1 Self-Esteem It is important for students with disabilities to have self-esteem. First, self-esteem is related to students’ general mental health. Secondly, self-esteem can directly affect performances in academic settings. And finally, a student’s self-esteem will affect expectations.
3.2.2 Anxiety • It is associated with feelings of uneasiness, frustration, self-doubt, apprehension, or worry • According to Brown (2000), anxiety can be caused by the situations below: • communication apprehension. • fear of negative evaluation, • test anxiety or apprehension over academic evaluation.
3.2.3 Motivation Motivation can be defined as the “general process by which behaviour is initiated and directed toward a goal.” (Woolfolk, 1990) Students with disabilities often exhibit poor motivation because of their histories of failure.
3.2.3 Motivation There are numerous factors that influence the motivation of students. These include: 1. anxiety, 2. self-esteem, 3. teacher expectations, 4. the learning process, 5. goal structure, and 6. incentives for learning. (Smith, et.al. 1993)
3.3 Academic Problems3.3.1 Reading Problems The reading process involves visual motor skills, perceptual skills, and an interpretation of symbols by the brain. It is generally broken down into two major components: 1.“reading” the words, or decoding, 2. understanding what is read, or comprehension.
3.3.1 Reading Problems Simply decoding, or “reading” words does not automatically mean that the words read are understood. Failure of comprehension will result in confusion. Less-skilled readers are able to activate contextually relevant information. However, unlike skilled readers, less-skilled readers experience greater difficulty suppressing the activation of irrelevant or inappropriate information.
4.0 Theoretical Construct That The Article Can Be Based On 4.1 Theories Related To Cognitive Problems 4.2 Theories Related to Affective Problems 4.3 Theories Related to Reading Problems
4.1.1 Information Processing Theory / Conditions Of Learning by Gagne
4.1.2 Meaning Learning by D. Ausubel According to Ausubel, learning is based upon the kinds of superordinate, representational, and combinatorial processes that occur during the reception of information. A major instructional mechanism proposed by Ausubel is the use of advance organizers.
Fishbone Mapping Cycle Family Tree Graphic Organizer Clustering Venn Diagram
4.1.3 Lateral Thinking by Edward de Bono Lateral thinking is thinking that seek new ways of looking at a problem rather than proceeding by logical steps. “You cannot dig a hole in a different place by digging the same hole deeper”. The point of lateral thinking is that many problems require a different perspective to solve successfully.
Blue Hat ThinkingProcess Control, Managing the Thinking Green Hat ThinkingCreativity, Ideas, Alternatives Yellow Hat ThinkingBenefits, Why something would be helpful Black Hat ThinkingDifficulties, Potential Problems, Risk Assessment White Hat ThinkingInformation, Data, Facts Known and Needed Red Hat Thinking: Gut Instinct, Intuition, Hunches Six Thinking Hats By Edward de Bono
4.1.7 Teaching Implications of Information Processsing Provide cues to students so they might be guided to the relevant tasks or salient features of the task. Have students study the critical feature differences between stimuli when trying to perceive differences. Have the students use the context to aid in perception. Facilitate the activation of schemata and provide labeled experiences.
5. Teach students to use specific memory strategies. These could include association, visualization, chunking, and rehearsal. 6. Use organization techniques to assist students in organizing their long-term memories, using such content enhancements as graphic organizer, semantic maps, relationship charts, and concept diagrams. 7. Teach students how to be flexible thinkers and to solve problems, thereby encouraging them to use executive functioning or metacognition. 4.1.7 Teaching Implications of Information Processsing
4.2.2 The Natural Approach by Stephen Krashen Five hypotheses: 1. The Natural Order Hypothesis; 2.The Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis; 3.The Monitor Hypothesis, 4.The Input Hypothesis, 5.The Affective Filter Hypothesis.
4.2.3 Teaching Implications of Affective Problems Provide as much as comprehensible input as possible. Visuals aids are useful to help in comprehension The focus in the classroom should be listening and reading, speaking should be allowed to “emerged”. In order to lower the affective filter, students work should center meaningful communication rather than on form, input should be interesting and so contribute to a relaxed classroom atmosphere. Engage students in group activities so that they are more confident in the learning process.
4.3.1 Schema Theory • Schemas can be defined as organized structures of stereotypic knowledge. • Schemas allow us to organize our knowledge in such a way that we can retrieve information and effectively add new information to long-term memory. • They also assist us in determining the relationships among ideas.
4.3.2 Teaching Implications of Reading Problems There are several implications for the teaching of reading: Reading must be fast. Read in meaningful chunks rather than individual words. Reading must be selective. Make use of non-visual information. Relate the new knowledge to what is already known.
