TRADITIONS IN GEOGRAPHY

1. TRADITIONS IN GEOGRAPHY • Geography- description of the earth • Eratosthenes (ca. 276-195 B.C.)- Greek scholar who coined the term “geography”; also credited with measuring the circumference of the earth 40,000 km (25,000 mi.) Three traditions or themes in geography: • 1)      Ecological analysis (Man-Land analysis)- studying the interaction of humans with their environment (Hippocrates, fifth century B.C.) • Environmental determinism- the physical environment, esp. climate, shapes human destiny • 2)      Spatial analysis- study of distance, form and position (Ptolemy, A.D. 90 - 168) • 3)      Regional analysis (Areal differentiation)- how regions differ; character of regions (Strabo, c. 64 B.C. – A.D. 20)

4. Fundamentals of geography: • Space- extent or area usually expressed in terms of the earth’s surface • Location- a particular position within space, usually a position on the earth’s surface • Nominal location- position within space w/ the use of a name (e.g.: Mansfield) • Absolute Location- position in terms of an arbitrary grid system; e.g.: latitude and longitude. Mansfield, Ohio latitude 40 45 N and longitude 82 30 W. • Relative location (situation)- relationship of one location with all other relevant locations. The cities of Paris and New York are examples of cities that gained from important relative locations.

5. Latitude- of any place, P, is the angle subtended at the center of the earth by the meridian arc intercepted between the equator and Place P • Longitude- of any place, P, is the angle subtended at the center of the earth by the Equatorial arc intercepted between the Prime Meridian and the Meridian of the Place P.

7. Place- Position on the earth’s surface on which we can ascribe certain values; location becomes a place once it is identified with a certain content of information • Region - an area on the earth’s surface marked by certain properties (e.g.: Midwest). All regions have location, occupy a certain area and exhibit a certain degree of homogeneity, or sameness. • Formal (uniform or homogenous) region- an area marked by a certain degree of homogeneity or sameness in one or more phenomena • Functional (nodal or focal) region- area marked less by its sameness than by its dynamic internal structure around a focal point.

8. Additional Terms • Equator – The east-west line of latitude dividing the Northern and Southern Hemispheres – Location on the Earth that has a latitude of 0°. • Parallels - east-west lines of latitude that are intersected at right angles by meridians of longitude • Meridians - lines of longitude that together with parallels and latitude forms the geographic grid system; all meridians converge at both poles and are at their maximum distances from each other at the equator

9. Additional Terms • Prime Meridian -- the first meridian passing through Greenwich, London, UK; location on the earth that has 0° of longitude. • Great Circle -- An imaginary circle drawn on the Earth's surface that has its center synchronized to the center of the planet. The equator is a great circle. • Arctic Circle – Latitude of 66.5° North. The southern limit of the area of the Earth that experiences 24 hours of darkness or 24 hours of day at least one day during the year. • Antarctic Circle -- Latitude of 66.5° South. The northern limit of the area of the Earth that experiences 24 hours of darkness or 24 hours of day at least one day during the year. • Tropic of Cancer -- Latitude of 23.5° North. Northern limit of the sun's declination. • Tropic of Capricorn -- Latitude of 23.5° South. Southern limit of the sun's declination.

10. Basics of a map: • Scale- ratio of map distance to ground distance; expressed in 3 ways: • 1) Verbal scale (statement)- ex: 1 inch to 1 mile • 2) Linear (or graphic or bar) scale- use of a line subdivided into smaller units • 3) Representative fraction (R.F.)- independent of units and expressed as a fraction or ratio where numerator is always 1. • Map projection- an orderly system of parallels and meridians for the transfer of the geographic grid from a globe on to a map; • three types, based upon 3 developable geometric figures: plane, cylinder, and cone.

11. Map Projections • 1) Azimuthal (zenithal) projections- portion of the globe is projected upon a plane tangent to it; All points have their true compass directions from the center of the map.The tangent plane on which the projection is made is not always tangent at the pole (e.g.: Zenithal Equidistant) • 2) Cylindric- imagine a paper cylinder surrounding the globe with all relevant points projected onto it, and then the paper is opened out (e.g.: Standard Mercator—by Gerhard Kramer for navigational use) • 3) Conic- right triangle (cone) is wrapped around the globe and all relevant points are projected onto it; meridians converge at the apex of the cone, which is outside of the map; concentric circles represent parallels of latitude (e.g.: Alber’s Equal Area) • 4) Pseudocylindric- shows the entire world (e.g.: Goode’s Interrupted Homolosine and Robinson)

12. Map Projections • Desirable properties of map projections: • Equal area (homolographic)- any given area of the earth’s surface is shown to correct relative size, regardless of position on the globe; the ratio between any area on the map and the corresponding area on the globe is constant • Conformal (orthomorphic)- class of map projections in which the shape of any small area on the map is the same as the shape of the corresponding true shape or outline of any small surface feature of the earth

13. Environment- a growing machine from which we get • food • other agricultural products • wood • other forest products • energy • a treasure house of minerals • also includes the ocean environment

14. Four major components of the environment: • 1) Atmosphere- gaseous envelope over the earth • 2) Lithosphere- the solid crust of the earth • 3) Hydrosphere- oceans and other bodies of water • 4) Biosphere- the living things on the earth

15. Landforms- surface features of the earth • Two types of forces change the face of the planet: • 1) Tectonic forces- those forces that build the land surface; result of pressure that builds in the interior of the earth • Examples: • Pangaea- the ancestral landmass of the planet • Panthalassa- the ancestral ocean of the planet surrounding Pangaea • Folding- the bending of rock strata • Faulting- the breaking of rock strata

16. Landforms- surface features of the earth: • 2) Gradational forces- those that wear down the earth’s surface (e.g.: wind, water, ice, gravity, and the sea) • Examples: • Fjord- valley with very steep sides that were scoured by the glaciers and subsequently filled by ocean water; arms of the sea reaching far inland; characterize the coasts of NW Europe • Loess- wind borne and deposited soils of buff color and typical of China, Russia, and the U.S.

17. Other terms related to physical geography • Alpine chains- the active belts of mountain making • Meseta- The extensive plateau of interior Spain – an eroded and broken block of the earth’s crust, crossed by higher mountain ridges. • Continental drift- the present-day continents began as one, then broke up into 2: • Laurasia and • Gonduana(land), • eventually into the 7 we have today—through the process of tectonic forces

18. Wegener- came up with the theory of continental drift • Tethys Sea- the name given to the ocean separating Laurasia from Gondwanaland. • Plate tectonics- great slabs of solid rock that form the ocean floor and carry the continents • Subduction- the down-plunging of one plate under another along a convergent plate boundary

19. Divergent boundaries-where new crust is generated as the plates pull away from each other. Divergent boundaries explain the volcanoes of Iceland and the rift valleys (deep 60 mile wide trenches) of eastern Africa (African Escarpment). • Convergent boundaries-where crust is destroyed as one plate dives under another. Convergent boundaries explain the location of the world's ocean trenches, some mountain chains like the Andes of South America and the Himalayas of Asia, and the location of most of the world's volcanoes [ring of fire]. • Neutral boundaries-

20. Climate and related terms: • Climate- a generalized statement of the prevailing weather conditions at a given place, based • upon statistics of a long period of record (usually more than 30 years) and including average values, deviation from these averages, and the probabilities associated with them • Climograph- a graph on which two or more climatic variables, such as monthly mean temperature, and • precipitation, are plotted for each month of the year • Weather- the physical state of the atmosphere at a given place and time

21. Insolation- incoming solar radiation that heats and cools land and water. • Lapse rate- the average decline in temperature with upward movement in the troposphere; standard value is 6.4 C/km (3.5 F/1000 ft). • Continentality- the tendency of a landmass to impose a large temperature range. • Rainshadow- an effect of marine influences being cut off by mountain barriers (as in India and Hawaii). • Tundra- a climatic type that occupies the northernmost reaches of N. America and Asia; it is characterized by summer temperatures that do not exceed 10 degrees C (50 F); typical vegetation includes mosses, lichens and some dwarf plants in protected valleys; (also, one of the biomes) • Monsoon- a reversal of wind system especially in South Asia • Trade winds- streams of air that originate in semipermanent anticyclones on the margins of the Tropics and are attracted equatorward by a semipermanent low-pressure cell, the equatorial low

22. Three types of precipitation: • 1) Convectional- type of precipitation associated with surface heating (most pronounced near equator) • 2) Orographic- mountain induced precipitation • 3) Cyclonic (Frontal)- type of precipitation that results when either a mass of warm air overruns one of cold air or the latter undercuts the former

23. The two major climatic controls of Europe’s climate: • 1) Westerlies- surface winds that blow from the southwesterly direction in the mid-latitude zone to the polar low; influence northwestern Europe and the Pacific Northwest • 2) North Atlantic Drift- the relatively warm currents that wash the western coasts of Europe

24. Cyclone- a center of low atmospheric pressure • Anticyclone- center of high atmospheric pressure • Millibar*- a unit of measurement of atmospheric pressure

25. Vegetation • Biome- the largest recognizable subdivision of the terrestrial ecosystems, including the total assemblage of plants and animals interacting within the life layer/environment • Taiga- an example of the forest biome, including the forests of northern latitudes; specifically, the coniferous forest of Siberia (Boreal forest in North America) • Ecosystem- group of organisms and the environment with which the organisms interact • Xerophyte- a plant that has adapted to a dry environment

26. Application to Europe: • Garrigue- low scrub type of vegetation in Southern Europe’s oak forests (e.g. thyme) • Maquis- A French term that describes the brush-like type of vegetation in Southern Europe’s oak forests; it consists of an abundance of aromatic plants such as lavender, rosemary, and myrtle; in Italy it is called macchia, and in the U.S. chaparral)

27. Soils • Leaching - a pedogenic process in which material is lost from the soil by downward washing out and removal by percolating surplus water; common in Third World climates • Humus - dark brown to black organic matter on or in the soil, consisting of fragmented plant tissues partly oxidized by consumer organisms

28. Soils • Soil orders: • The following have well-developed horizons or fully weathered minerals, resulting from long-continued adjustment to the prevailing conditions of temperature and moisture: • Alfisols- soils of cold moist climates characterized by an argillic horizon; gray, brownish, or reddish surface horizon • Aridisols- soils of dry climates, low in organic matter and often having subsurface horizons of accumulation of carbonate minerals or soluble salts • Mollisols- soils of semiarid and subhumid midlatitude grasslands, with a dark, humus-rich epipedon and very high base status; very thick, dark brown to black surface horizon; among the naturally most fertile soils in the world; Great Plains and the Great Basin of N.A. and Eurasia (Russia, Siberia, and Mongolia)

29. Oxisols- highly weathered soils of low altitudes, with a subsurface horizon of an accumulation of mineral oxides and a very low base status; formerly called laterites or latosols; red, yellow, and yellowish brown colors; S. America and Africa • Spodosols- soils of cold moist climates with a well-developed B horizon (spodic horizon) of illuviation, and low base status • Ultisols- soils of equatorial, tropical, and subtropical latitude zones, with a subsurface horizon of clay accumulation (argillic horizon) and low base status; SE Asia and E. Indies • Vertisols- high clay content and high base status, developing deep, wide cracks when dry; found in subtropical and tropical zones; black in color and a high clay content

30. The following have a large proportion of organic matter: • Histosols- soils with a thick upper layer very rich in organic matter; most known as peats or mucks; found in shallow lakes and ponds

31.  The following are soils with poorly developed horizons or no horizons, and capable of further mineral alteration: • Entisols- a soil order that includes mineral soils lacking soil horizons and can be found in many areas • Inceptisols- soils with weakly developed horizons, having minerals capable for further alteration by weathering processes; SE Asia •  Application to Europe: the soils of Europe are generally acidic and of lower fertility, such as alfisols, entisols, histosols, inceptosols, and spodosols

32. Human geography • Demography- the interdisciplinary study of population—especially birth rates and death rates, growth patterns, longevity, migration, and related characteristics • Malthusian dilemma- the world population increases exponentially while the food supply increases arithmetically • Demographic transition- a four stage model, based on Western Europe’s experience, of changes in population growth exhibited by countries undergoing modern industrialization

33. Population Densities • Population density - the number of people per unit of area • Arithmetic density - a country’s population, expressed as an average per unit area, without regard for its distribution or the limits of arable land • Physiologic density- number of people per unit of arable (cultivable) land • Population pyramid- a graphic device that is used to show the population of a country by age and sex cohorts

34. Human/Urban geography terms: • Generative city- a city that has complementary relations with its hinterland; usually serves break-in-bulk functions • Break-in-bulk (point)- location where large quantities of commodities must be transferred to other means of transportation for shipment to different destinations. • Parasitic city- a city that does not have a complementary relationship with its hinterland • Primate city- a pattern of the urban system of a country, according to which the largest city is disproportionately large and expressive of national culture (Ex: Paris).

35. Economic geography • LDCs- Less developed countries • MDCs- Most developed countries • Subsistence agriculture- existing on the minimum necessities to sustain life; spending most of one’s time in pursuit of survival. • Commercial agriculture- for-profit agriculture • Spatial interaction- the flows of goods, people, and information among places.

36. Three conditions inhibit or promote interaction: • 1) Complementarity- in order for movement to occur between two places, there must be a supply of some item in one place and a demand for it in another, and the demand and the supply must be complementary. • 2) Transferability- all movements incur costs, and costs increase with distance. • 3) Intervening opportunity- a negative concept that states the interaction among places is inhibited, perhaps because of relative location; i.e. the presence of a nearer opportunity diminishes the attractiveness of sites farther away

37. Cultural geography • Sequent occupance- the successive stages in the evolution of a region’s cultural landscape. • Iconography- a unique combination of cherished symbols. • Lingua franca- a common language of communication used in areas where the local people speak different languages. • Application to Europe—Multiple languages are spoken in Europe:

38. Indo-European Languages • A family of languages predominating in Europe and including: Teutonic, Romanic, Slavic, Baltic, Hellenic, Illyrian, and Celtic • Teutonic (Germanic)- subfamily of Indo-European languages that is spoken mainly in northwestern Europe and includes the following groups: English, German-Dutch (Dutch, Flemish, and German), Scandinavian (Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, and Icelandic) • Flemish- a linguistic variant of Dutch spoken in northern Belgium • Altaic- spoken in the form of Turkish in the foothold of Turkey in Europe • Uralic- includes Finnic, Lapp, and Ugrian

39. Regions of Europe Western Europe • British Isles • Devolution- the disintegration of a nation state as a result of reviving regionalism; evident in many countries of Europe; the redistribution of authority and the restructuring of the political framework of the UK. • Conurbation- a term synonymous with megalopolis, and used to describe large metropolitan complexes formed by the coalescence of two or more cities (e.g. London) • See also: primate city

40. France • Midi- Southern and Mediterranean France. • Hexagon-The shape of France. • Site- the internal locational attributes of a place, including local spatial organization and physical characteristics (ex: hill, swamp, soil). • Massif- a French term that is used to describe a mountainous formation which is characterized by fairly uniform geologic structure and clearly defined boundaries; as in Massif Central, a hilly upland in southern France.

41. Glaciation- a period of lowered temperatures, ice surges, and dropping sea levels; • occurred in the low land of northern Germany • Gasterbeiter- a German term meaning “guest worker” and used to describe the foreign workers who came to work in the factories in the 1960s from Southern Europe

42. Benelux- the acronym for the western European countries with extremely high population densities: Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg • Polder- reclaimed land from the sea in the Netherlands • Walloon- the inhabitants of southern Belgium and the language that is spoken there

43. Switzerland and Austria • Irredentism- the movement among people of the same ethnicity to unite with their brethren across a border • Transhumance- the cyclical movement of herds and people from lowland to highland environments (areas where pastures are available); for example, in Switzerland the movement is to the higher ground in the summer and lower in the winter; in dry regions, the movement is from oasis to oasis

44. NORDIC: • Shield- a very large mass of Precambrian (a period spanning probably more than 400,000,000 years B.P.) rock that is relatively stable over a long period of time and disturbed only by slight warping • Entrepot- usually a port city that serves as a point for break-of-bulk in the transshipment of goods to new destinations (e.g. Copenhagen) • Moraine*- an accumulation of debris, especially boulders and coarse material, carried and deposited by a glacier or ice sheet • [See also: glaciation and fjord]

45. EASTERN: • Shatterbelt- a region that is politically fragmented because of pressure from outside powers; Eastern Europe SOUTHERN: • Mezzogiorno- • [See also: maquis (macchia)] Misc. Terms: • Orogeny- Major episode of tectonic activity resulting in strata being deformed by folding and faulting.