Road Design

1. Road Design

2. Design standard • Design standards refers to strategic decisions regarding the geometric standard to which the road is build • These decisions usually made at planning stage and primarily affected by capacity and economic efficiency considerations • Safety should also be a consideration in planning phase

3. Road standard • As traffic flow increases it becomes necessary or economical to design and build roads to higher economic standard • The higher the economic standard, the safer the road • Safety benefits of higher geometric standards is one of the economic factors that should be taken to account in deciding appropriate design standard

4. Road standard • Investigating safety benefits of road improvement show the following crash reduction significant at 10 percent level or better for various types of projects • Rural town bypasses : 32% reduction • Rural road duplication : 29% reduction • Urban intersection grade separation : 57% percent • Other rural projects : 28% reduction

5. Road standard • The highest geometric of road is one with • High design speed • Full access control • Forgiving roadsides • Entry and exit at grade-separated interchanges • Opposing direction of traffic separated by a median This type of road is variously referred to as freeway, motorway, autobahn, and sometimes expressway

6. Road standard • Safety improves dramatically with design standard • Freeways are much safer per mile of travel than other roads • Freeways with higher standards are • at lest 4 times safer than other roads • 20 times safer than other arterial rods • 2 times safer than freeways with lower standards

7. Access control • Access control reduces or eliminates the events which the driver must respond • Access control has been described as the most important single design factor ever developed for crash reduction • Part of safety advantages of freeways stem from control of access • Controlling access on existing road through the use of frontage roads

8. Access control (continued) • Crash rates increases rapidly with the density of access driveways • In one study the difference between a low development (fewer than 30 access per mile) and a high level of development was to more than double the number of driveway crashes • Several studies indicated that this is a rural problem as well as an urban problem in US

9. Median • Medians are of several types • Wide median without a physical barrier • Provide space for the driver to regain control and provide room for turning lanes • Narrow median with a physical barrier • Steel guard fence or shaped concrete barrier • Discouraging inappropriate pedestrian crossing • Narrow median without a physical barrier • Separating opposing direction of traffic • Provide opportunity for pedestrians to cross the road in two stages

10. Median (continued) • A study by National Association of Australian state road compared crash rate for roads with different median types and compared with undivided roads • Narrow painted median • 30% crash reduction • Narrow raised median • 48% crash reduction • Wide median • 54% crash reduction

11. Median (continued) • In urban areas, medians should be wide enough to protect a turning or crossing vehicles • FHWA in 1982 found that with a 30 feet wide median, between 70-90 percent of vehicle encroaching on the median do not reach the other side of roadway • Narrower medians with physical barrier typically have higher crash rate but lower crash severity

12. Median (continued) • A British study in 1980 found that installing a steel guard fence in the median of divided rural roads led to • 15% reduction in fatal crashes • 14% increase in non-injury crashes • The median slope on wide medians can influence crashes • Zegeer and Council 1992 suggest that • a maximum slope of 6:1 is desirable on wide medians • Slopes of 4:1 or steeper are associated with rollovers

13. Cross section elements (continued) • Lane width • 11-12 ft lanes have been shown to have the lowest crash rate • 10 ft lanes have been shown to contribute to multi-vehicle crashes • A number of studies have shown the safety advantages of widening narrow lanes • An American study reveal 22% crash reduction on rural roads by widening 9 ft lanes to 11 ft and 10 ft lanes to 12 ft

14. Cross section elements (continued) • Widening lane width affected opposite direction and run-off-road crashes by following percentages • 1 ft lane widening : 12% crash reduction • 2 ft lane widening : 23% crash reduction • 3 ft lane widening : 32% crash reduction • 4 ft lane widening : 40% crash reduction • Study shows that there is little if any benefit in increasing lane width beyond 12 ft, except where there is a large volume of trucks, where lanes of 13 ft may be appropriate

15. Cross section elements (continued) • Wider lanes may be counter-productive, since they encourage unsafe maneuvers such as overtaking along center line in the face of oncoming traffic • Striping the road with three lanes • Better from safety and user service viewpoints • Clearly define overtaking lane n one direction • Much cheaper, since overtaking lane need not to be provided over full length of the road • Overtaking lane in about 10% of the road will accommodate the task

16. Cross section elements (continued) • Shoulder width • There is some evidence that crash rates reduce as shoulder width increases • An American study 1981showed a 21% reduction in total crashes when a road with no shoulders had shoulders of 3-9 feet • The study suggest that for the roads currently without shoulders, the optimum shoulder width to be provided is 5 feet • A Swedish study showed decrease in crashes with increase shoulder width from 0 to 7 ft, and a little additional benefit was obtained for shoulder width above 8 ft

17. Cross section elements (continued) • Lane and shoulder width • The effects of lane and shoulder width are not independent • Widening lanes from 9 to 12 ft without shoulder improvements reduce crashes by 32% • The greatest gain comes from the combination of lane and shoulder improvements • Widening a highway from 9 to 12 ft lanes and 0 to 6 ft shoulders, reduced crashes by about 60%

18. Cross section elements (continued) • Surface cross slope • Drainage is an essential part of any road • 6 mm film of water can reduce friction coefficient to near zero, thus making braking and turning almost impossible • Most wet weather crashes occur on low skid resistance pavements • Dunlap 1978 found that thickness of a water film on large radius curves can be almost twice that on a crowned straight section of road with the same cross slope

19. Sight distance • A Swedish study 1990 found that in most cases crash rate decreases with increasing average sight distance especially single vehicle crashes at night • McBean 1982 found that on rural roads in Britain, sight distances shorter than 700 ft were more likely to be found at crash through their association with horizontal curves

20. Sight distance (continued) • A study reported by TRB, went on to develop a model to assist in determining the cost-effectiveness of lengthening a vertical curve to increase sight distance over a crest • It is cost-effective when the design speed is more than 20 mph below operating speed in the area • Traffic flows exceed 1500 vpd • High volume intersection • Sharp curve • Steep downgrade • Lane drop

21. Sight distance (continued) • Improving sight distance on horizontal curves has been found to be highly cost-effective • If involves low cost treatments • Clearing vegetation • Clearing Minor obstructions • Significant truck volume present • Since larger and heavier trucks have poorer braking performance despite increased eye height, it must be compensated by greater sight distance

22. Horizontal and vertical alignment • Average crash rate for curved road segment is three times that of straight segment • Average run-off-road crash rates is four times higher in curved segment than tangent • Studies suggested that horizontal curves on rural roads should not be less than about 2000 ft radius • A significantly higher crash rate can be expected on curves with radius below 1500 feet

23. Horizontal and vertical alignment (continued) • From safety viewpoint, the important issue is consideration of this factor in a consistent fashion with other design parameter along the stretch of road • Curve flattening is expensive and is only cost-effective under certain condition • Other treatments for safety problems at horizontal curve include • Physical rehabilitation and partial reconstruction • Removal of roadside hazards • Trees • Utility poles

24. Horizontal and vertical alignment (continued) • Flattening the side slope • Resurfacing the roadway to improve skid resistance • Increasing the superelevation • Paving the shoulders • Eliminating pavement age drops • Low cost treatments will include • Upgrading the pavement edge lines and centerlines • Adding raised reflective pavement markers • Providing curve alignment markers

25. Horizontal and vertical alignment (continued) • Upgrading the advance warning • Grades should ideally not exceed 6%, with a lower value 4% when there is a high proportion of trucks using the road • The worst situation happens when some road feature such as sharp curves, steep grades and intersections come together or in close proximity to each other • Horizontal curves should utilize plan transitions to connect the straight with circular arc, particularly on the roads with high proportion of trucks

26. Bridges, structures and culverts • Bridges and culverts can be significant in terms of in their involvement in run-off-road crashes • For new bridges, Mak 1987 has recommended that the bridges • should be 6 ft wider than traveled way, 3 ft shoulders should carried across the bridge • On roads with high traffic flows, full width shoulders may be carried across the bridge • Overpasses should have bridge piers which are designed for impact loading, ideally there should be no pier at the edge of the roadway

27. Overtaking • If there is guard fencing alongside the road on the bridge approaches, this will design to yield on impact • There is a need for transition in stiffness of the guard fencing adjacent to the bridge end post, and the guard fence should be rigidly attached to the end post • Overtaking associated with crashes on rural two-lane roads • Overtaking lanes provide significant safety benefits • In Australia, the recommendations for a two-lane rural road with design speed of 60 mph is to have

28. Truck escape ramps • A minimum length of overtaking lane of about 2000 ft and maximum of 4000 ft • The total taper length of 800 ft • Installation of an escape ramp is one of the few safety treatments designed for trucks to reduce the hazard of a runaway truck on a downgrade • There are six different types of design of truck escape ramp • Sand pile • Gravity ramp • Ascending-grade arrester bed

29. Truck escape ramps (continued) • Descending-grade arresting bed • Horizontal-grade arrester bed • Roadside arrester bed • FHWA quote a study in Colorado involving before and after study of the effectiveness of construction of truck escape ramps • The most successful ramp showed a 400% reduction in crashes and benefit-cost ratio of 10:1