“An Outline of the Social System”

1. “An Outline of the Social System” Talcott Parsons, 1951

2. Talcott Parsons • Born December 13, 1902 in Colorado Springs, CO • his father was a Congregational minister and active in the social reform movement known as the Social Gospel movement. • Relatively little information about him before he went to Amherst • Graduated from Amherst College with a major in biology, leisure and tourism, and philosophy. • Went to London School of Economics (LSE). Reputation for intellectual excellence and a radical political stance on the part of many of its staff – grounding in sociology • Met wife Helen Walker – married to for whole life

3. …continue Parsons • WWII – important lag time for Parsons --- the deaths of his elder brother and of both parents between 1940 and 1943 seem to have played a part in what he thought of “as a 'major failure' of his career-the inability to complete a 'major monographic study of medical practice' at that time, based on his empirical work” University of Heidelberg with Ph.D. in sociology and economics • Most works influences by time spent with the Program in Social Relations (1946) • 1949 – elected president of the American Sociological Association • Very prominent American Sociologist – teaching at Harvard • In 1953/4 Parsons traveled to England - visiting chair of social theory at Cambridge. • He was asked to give the annual Marshall Lectures that academic year, with the theme of 'the relations between economic and sociological theory' • Died May 8, 1979

4. Structural Functionalism and Ideas • Main focus Structural Functionalism • Social Systems/Institutions • subsystems, roles, the normative order, and the interpretation of situations by social actors • Pattern Variables • Gratification/discipline – actor’s emotional involvement • Private/collective – needs to individual or wider population • Universalism/particularism – action to particular person • Achievement/ascription – interaction and achievements • Specificity/diffuseness – range of roles an actor has • Society Breakdown • Cultural system – symbols for expressions • Personality system – unique identity • Social system – modes of interactions between actors

5. Sociocultural Evolutionism • The change in cultures and societies over time • Provides models for understanding relationship between technologies, social structure, the values of society, and how/why changes occur over time. • Mechanisms of variation and social change Then how does a society maintain itself…?

6. AGIL & subsystems of action • A - The function of adaptation. Adaptation is another consequence of goal plurality. With providing additional disposable facilities independent of their relevance to any particular goal. • G - The function of goal-attainment. Goal-attainment becomes a problem in so far as there arises some discrepancy between the inertial tendencies of the system and its needs resulting from interchange with the situation. • I - The function of integration. In the control hierarchy, integration stands between the functions of pattern-maintennce and goal-attainment. The system as a whole is concerned most with the allocation of rights and obligations. • L - The function of pattern maintenance. The function of pattern maintenance refers to the imperative of maintaining the stability of patterns of institutionalized culture defining the structure of the system.

7. Advocate of "grand theory," an attempt to integrate all the social sciences into an overarching theoretical framework • Most influential works: • The Structure of Social Action (1937) • The Social System (1951) • Early work The Structure of Social Action (1937) – inspired by work from Max Weber, Vilfredo Pareto, and Emile Durkheim • Main goal: “action theory” – human action is voluntary, intentional, and symbolic • Pattern variables • Today’s Readings focused on early developing theories and Social Systems

8. Parsons’s Works • The Structure of Social Action (1937) • The Social System (1951) • Economy and Society - with N. Smelser (1956) • Structure and Process in Modern Societies (1960) • Societies: Evolutionary and Comparative Perspectives (1966) • Sociological Theory and Modern Society (1968) • Politics and Social Structure (1969) • The American University - with G. Platt (1973) • Social Systems and the Evolution of Action Theory (1977) • Action Theory and the Human Condition (1978)

9. “The Position of Sociological Theory” (1948) Five important postulates: Must be recognized as fundamentally important to any science. Must have social systems. Must conform to the “structural-functional” type. Must be formulated within an “action” frame of reference Must be framed in terms of genuinely operational concepts.

10. 1. Fundamental Importance • Some of the highest levels of scientific development need the theoretic system in order to conceptualize ideas • When people recognize fundamental importance, social science will mature and have more “predictive power” in the science realm 2. Social Systems • “theoretical scheme which articulates our own field with others which are equally part of the same broader fundamental system.”

11. 3. “Structural-Functional” Type • Does not currently fit the analytical mechanics, but this is most desired state because it would cover a wider range of empirical analysis (Pareto) • “by use of structural categories it simplifies dynamic problems to the point where a significant proportion of them became empirically manageable with the observational and analytical resources we can hope to command in the near future”

12. 4. “Action” Frame of Reference • CANNOT be completely behavioristic • Excluding point-of-view of actor • Essential in order to understand the foundation of “motivational categories,” which include: attitudes, sentiments, goals, complexes, etc. 5. Genuinely Operational Concepts • “have theoretical categories of such a character that the empirical values of the variables concerned are the immediate products of our observational procedures” • Currently approach is not possible for most fields of social sciences

13. Methodological Prerequisites of the Formulation of a System 1. Analysis of the action frame of reference • Actor vs. Situation • Not physical or biological • “Analysis of the situation must be fully integrated with the analysis of the action itself” • Three fundamental modes of orientation: cognitive, goal directed, and affective.

14. 2. The functional prerequisites of the social system • System of social action involving a “plurality of interacting individuals” • Two primary foci: • Coordinating activities so that they do not negatively affect each other and contribute into the system • Adequacy of motivation 3. The bases of structure in social systems • Stable patterns between actors or roles and social relationships • Important aspects: • Institutionalization • Differentiation

15. Importance of Institutions • Structural differentiation and integration patterns • Dynamic interrelationships of institutions and culture • Motivation of institutional behavior • Motivation of deviant behavior/social control concerns • Dynamic theory of institutional change

16. “An Outline of the Social System” (1961) Functional differentiation • structured units acquire specialized significance in the functioning of the system • social interaction is bound to the physical task performance of individuals in a physical environment; it is bound to spatial location in the physical sense • spatial location is the community aspect of social structure, which can be broken down into four complexes • residential location and the social structure around it • functional task-performance through occupation, and its locational problems • jurisdictional application of normative order through the specification of categories and persons, and the relevance of this to the spatial location of their interests and activities • physical demands of communication and of the movements of persons and commodities

17. Technology • Technology relates to physical demands, but is also based on cultural resources and their significance as a means for social action

18. Outlining the structure of complex society as a social system • can be regarded as: • the maintenance of its patterns of institutionalized culture at the value level • the integration of its system of differentiated norms • the coordinated handling of external situations

19. Boundaries • The boundaries of a society tend to coincide with the territorial jurisdiction of the highest-order units of a political organization

20. In history, the collective values of a society have been concentrated in both religion and politics. Law has been legitimized by religion and enforced by political authority • often interpretation has been debated • in the western world, since the Christian era, there has been a separation of church and state • individualism • social theory advocating the liberty, rights, or independent action of the individual • moral community shifted from religious organization to an organization which included both religious and secular aspects • shift to a politically organized community although values still anchored in religion • “In God We Trust” • Values now embodied by judicial and legislative agencies

21. Other main points to article: • While there are limitations on physical force as an authority, control of a superior socially organized force usually prevents undesired action • political organization is organized around the attainment of collective goals • maintenance of states of interaction between system and its desirable environment • the maintenance of security against outside, adverse force • political organization must also be integrated with legal system • the differentiation at highest level of societal organization described as a function of 4 sets of factors • societal values that are institutionalized • the degree and mode of their institutionalization • kind and level of structural differentiation of society • kinds of situational exigencies to which the system is exposed

22. Problem of Structural Change • sources of tendencies toward change • consist of external tendencies to change in the cultural systems in the social system • change in the genetic components within populations, which impact behavior and social role-performance • changes in physical environment • change originating in other politically organized systems • war, government interrelations, cultural borrowing

23. Problems of Structural Change continued… • internal sources, “strains” • if strain (tendency to disequilibrium between two or more units of a system) becomes great enough, the mechanisms of control will not be able to maintain that conformity and avoid breakdown of the structure • relieving strain • resolution – restoring conformity with normative expectations • arrestation/isolation – full conformity is not restored, however, some accommodation is made by which is accepted • change in structure itself

24. Aftermath: • the impact of these tendencies on the affected structural components and the possible consequences • possible generalizations about trends and patterns of change • exogenous • endogenous

25. Structural Components of the Social System

26. The Pattern-alternatives of Value-Orientation as Definition of Relational Role-expectation Patterns • The analysis of the differentiation of a social structure must start with the patterns the enter into its relational institutions • Social Structure brings out a limited number of ranges which, in their simplest form can be defined as polar alternatives of possible orientation-selection

27. The Gratification-Discipline Dilemma Affectivity vs. Affective Neutrality

28. Cont’d. • The “ultimate interest of any actor is in the optimization of gratification • Affectivity-No actor can subsist without gratifications, while at the same time no action system can be organized or integrated without the renunciation of some gratifications which are available in the given situation

29. CONT’d. • Affectivity-Neutrality formulates the patterning out of action with respect to the basic alternative, in direct orientations to the social objects with whom as actors interact in a role, and in its relevance to the structure of the expectations of his action in that role

30. The Private vs. Collective Interest Dilemma Self-Orientation vs. Collectivity Orientation

31. Cont’d. • Focuses on the same intrinsic problem as Affectivy vs. Affective-Neutrality but, is approached from the other end, as it were, namely the permissibility of his pursuing any interest “private” to himself as distinguished from those shared with the other members of the collectivity in which he plays a role.

32. Cont’d. • A role, then, may define certain areas of pursuit of private interests as legitimate, and in other areas obligate the actor to pursuit of the common interest of the collectivity • May be called “Collectivity-Orientation”

33. The Choice Between Types of Value-Orientation Standard Universalism vs. Particularism

34. Cont’d. Concerns not subordination to vs freedom from certain value standards whatever their content, but the type of value-standard which is defined as relevant to the role-expectation.

35. The Choice Between “Modalities” of the Social Object Achievement vs. Ascription

36. Cont’d. • Concerns its application to the definition of ideal states of affairs where they differ from a given initial state • Concerns characteristics of the object which maybe selected as the focus of orientation

37. The Definition of Scope Interest in the Subject Specificity vs. Diffuseness

38. Cont’d. • A particular instrumental or expressive orientation or interest has a certain specificity such that is capable of clear analytical segregation from the other or from moral orientations • Diffuseness-alternative to specificity, to treat the object as significant in an indefinite plurality of specific orientation contexts.

39. Discussion Questions: • Looking at social systems today, can you identify some that have been successful in maintaining themselves? What about systems that have failed? Why did they fail? • Parsons ideas were not taken well in America – why do you think this is? Which aspect of his teachings do you think was most controversial?

40. Introduction • Empirically social systems are conceived as open systems engaged in interchange with environing systems, which include: • Cultural and personality systems • Behavior and other subsystems of an organism • And the physical environment • This also implies boundaries and their maintenance • “A boundary means that a theoretically and empirically significant difference between structures and processes internal to the system and those external to it exists and tends to be maintained” • There are three “bases or axes of variability” also called “bases of selective abstraction,” which are important in analyzing a system:

41. 1. Structural and Functional Modes of Analysis Distinction between “structural” and “functional” references for analysis • Structural – focuses on elements of the patterning of the system that are independent of smaller fluctuations in the relation of the system to its external situation • Example: The American Constitution has been a stable reference point over time, because although society has changed and it has been adjusted, it has, for the most part, remained constant in important elements • Functional – relates to the problem of mediation between exigencies: those from the constancy of a structure and those imposed by the situation a system is in

42. 2. “Dynamic” Modes of Analysis • Distinction between two orders of “dynamic” problems relative to a system • Equilibrium problems – patterns assumed to remain unchanged • Change in the structure of the system itself – problems of interchange with the cultural system • Process of “structural differentiation” which involves reorganization and fundamental structural change

43. 3. The Hierarchy of Relations of Control • The organization of living things involves mechanisms that operate as agencies of control of metabolic and behavioral processes • Basic subsystems of the general system of action constitute a hierarchical series of such agencies of control over the behavior of humans or organisms: • Behavior system is point of articulation of th system of action with the anatomical-physiological features of the physical organism and is its point of contact with the environment • Personality system is a system of control over the behavioral organism (the social system) over the personalities of its members and the cultural system is a system of control relative to social systems • Control Relations within the Social System • Hierarchies also exist within subsystems of action • Four essential functional imperatives of any system of action (hence, any social system):

44. The Function ofPattern-maintenance • “The imperative of maintaining the stability of the patterns of institutionalized culture defining the structure of the system” • Two distinct aspects: • 1. character of the normative person • 2. state of “institutionalization” • Focus of pattern-maintenance is in the structural category of values • Values are subject to change, but there is a great potential for disruption from them • Motivational commitment of the individual, or “tension-management” • Problem of mechanisms of socialization of the individual, strain on commitments • Social systems show a tendency to maintain their structural patters • Reference point provided for analysis of problems of variation • Clear that when we analyze social change we work with a different kind of theoretical problem

45. 2. The Function ofGoal-attainment • Is a problem because arouses discrepancy between inertial tendencies of the system and its “needs” resulting from interchange with the situation • Goals are therefore defined in terms of equilibrium – a directional change • A social system with one goal is inconceivable – situation is usually complex with many goals and problems • Goals must be arranged in order of relative urgency (system must be flexible) • Goal-orientation focuses on a social system’s relation as a system to the personalities of the participating individuals • Therefore it concerns not commitment to societal values, but motivation to contribute what is necessary for the system to function

46. 3. The Function of Adaptation • Must differentiate between the function of effective goal-attainment and providing disposable facilities independent of their relevance to any one goal • There is a hierarchy of both goals and facilities as well – flexibility must be maintained to maximize use of facilities to meet goals • Facilities include control of physical objects, access to services of humans, and certain cultural elements • Goal-attainment is more important than adaptation within any system

47. 4. The Function of Integration • All systems are differentiated and divided into independent units – must be treated as boundary-maintaining systems within an environment of other systems • Example: in a highly differentiated society, legal norms govern the allocation of rights, obligations, facilities, and rewards • The integrative function is the focus of most of a system’s distinctive properties and processes • Problems focusing on integration, therefore, are the central concern of sociological theory

48. CATEGORIES OF SOCIAL STRUCTURE • Introduction • Two main points of reference for sociological theory: • 1. relations of social systems and culture • Focuses on the problem of values and norms in the social system • 2. the individual as an organism and personality • Focuses on the individual’s participation in social interaction

49. Social Interaction and Roles • Role is the essential starting point for individual interaction • In order for interaction to be stable, roles and actions must have meanings and be governed by understood, shared rules. Rules define goals and the consequences of and given move by one player for the situation in which the other must make his choice. • A stable system of interaction orients its participants in terms of mutual expectations, which also express normative evaluations • The Concepts of Role and Collectivity • “Since the normal individual participates in many collectivities, it is commonplace, though a crucial one, that only in a limiting case does a single role constitute the entire interactive behavior of a concrete individual” • Roles are “sectors” of the behavioral system

50. The Structure of Complex Systems • The Concept of a Society • Societies are relatively self-sufficient collectivities which cannot be said to be a differentiated subsystem of a high-order collectivity oriented to most of the functional exigencies of a social system. The functional exigencies take shape in three distinct ways: differentiation, segmentation and specification • The Segmentation of Social Units • Humans as agencies of performance are indispensable • There are limits to what individuals can do and to the effectiveness of how individuals can cooperate with one another • Segmentation refers to the development of sub collectives within a larger collectivity system in which some members participate more intimately than others • “The necessity of segmentation derives largely from the problems of integration resulting from the other exigencies to which units of the system are subject.”