CHAPTER SIXTEEN

1. CHAPTER SIXTEEN SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

2. I. THEORIES OF SOCIAL & PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT Middle adulthood is commonly seen as the time when people are best able, developmentally, to manage the weighty demands associated with positions of authority and responsibility

3. A. Erikson's Generativity versus Stagnation Stage Generativity versus stagnation stage: Middle-aged adults find meaning in contributing to the development of younger individuals Generativity: A sense that one is making a valuable contribution to society by bringing up children or mentoring younger people (teaching, mentoring, leading in civic, religious or charitable organizations) (continued)

4. Erikson's Generativity versus Stagnation Stage (continued) Research on Generativity Generativity is positively related to mental health at this age, and is a more prominent theme for women than for men The way a man had responded earlier to his childlessness was predictive of his psychological health at age 47 Rearing one’s own or another’s child who calls forth one’s nurturing qualities may be important for psychological growth

5. Erikson's Generativity versus Stagnation Stage (continued) Vaillant’s Revision of Erikson’s Theory Vaillant argued that there is a stage between intimacy and generativity called career consolidation The outcome of this phase is the creation of a new social network for which the middle-aged adult’s primary work serves as a hub Following generativity versus stagnation is another stage called keeper of the meaning; here, middle-aged adults focus on preserving the institutions and values of their culture that they believe will benefit future generations

6. B. Mid-Life Crisis: Fact or Fiction? The term mid-life crisis was coined in the 1960s, when major events along life’s timeline were relatively lockstep and predictable, especially for men (school – work – retirement – death) Midway between school and death, a person’s perspective shifted from “time since birth” to “time left before death” The realization of the inevitability of death, along with other indicators of time passing, seemed to be a universal phenomenon that hit people during their 40s Now, however, the timing and nature of major life events have changed dramatically Several studies since the 1980s have failed to identify distinct ages at which measures of “mid-life crisis” occurred (continued)

7. Mid-Life Crisis: Fact or Fiction? (continued) Life events approach: a theoretical perspective on middle adulthood that focuses on normative and non-normative events and how adults in this age group respond to them All middle-aged adults are dealing with new stressors for which they must develop new ways of coping Role conflict: any situation in which two or more roles are at least partially incompatible, either because they call for different behaviours or because their separate demands add up to more hours than there are in the day Role strain: the strain experienced by an individual whose own qualities or skills do not measure up to the demands of some role

8. II. CHANGES IN RELATIONSHIPS AND PERSONALITY Family roles are still an important part of life in middle age These roles change significantly during this period of life

9. A. Partnerships Marital stability and satisfaction increase in mid-life as conflicts over child-rearing and other matters decline Shared friendships increase, while non-shared friendships decrease Skilled diplomacy: a problem solving approach that involves the confrontation of the spouse about an issue, followed by a period during which the confronting spouse works to restore harmony Is practised more often by wives than by husbands Appears to be an effective skill for marital problem-solving no matter which spouse uses it

10. B. Children and Parents A result of the extended life expectancy is that adults are likely to spend many more years with both upward and downward family relationships The family role involves not only maximum amounts of assistance given in both directions in the generational chain, but also the maximum responsibility for maintaining affectional bonds, producing what is sometimes called the mid-life "squeeze," or the "sandwich generation" Those between ages 40 and 65 give more than they receive in both directions in the family lineage—to adult children and to aging parents

11. The Sandwich Generation

12. Effects on High Intensity Sandwich Generation Workers

13. C. Emptying the Nest The timing of the "empty nest" stage in the family life cycle obviously depends on a person's (or couple's) age when the last child is born Those who delay childbearing push the empty nest to a later age—a pattern typical of today's Canadian adults The role of parent does not cease when the child leaves home Adults have much more time for their spousal roles, a change that contributes to the higher reported marital satisfaction in this stage of family life Women are more likely to describe the departure of the last child as a positive event than a negative one

14. D. The Revolving Door When adult children return to their parents’ home, conflicts are common Parents and children report inadequate privacy Parents’ sense of obligation to children leads them to delay pursuit of their own goals The percentage of adult children living with parents is increasing, due to Financial difficulties (unemployment or schooling) Delayed marriage Rise in the divorce rate Despite some conflict, new tasks and roles, more than half of parents are satisfied with the arrangement

15. E. Grandparenting More than half of Canadian adults become “grandparents” by the end of middle adulthood Most grandparents see or talk to their grandchildren regularly and describe the relationships as warm and loving Warm relationships with grandparents have a positive impact on children's development Grandparents seem to be an especially important source of stability in the lives of children of divorced parents (continued)

16. Ages at Which Individuals Become Grandparents

17. Grandparenting (continued) Basic styles of grandparenting: Remote relationships, in which grandparents do not see their grandchildren often Companionate relationships, in which grandparents have frequent contact and warm interactions with grandchildren Involved relationships, in which grandparents are directly involved in the everyday care of grandchildren or have close emotional ties with them

18. F. Caring for Aging Parents Another role that has a powerful effect on overall life satisfaction, is that of major caregiver to one's aging parents In virtually every culture, a great majority of adults feel a strong sense of responsibility to their aging parents About one in five Canadians provides care to a senior family member or friend, and one quarter of family members aged 45 to 54 provide the greatest proportion of unpaid care for elderly parents in Canada Caregiver burden: a term for the cumulative negative effects of caring for an elderly or disabled person

19. Consequences of the Care-giving Role

20. Development in the Real World: Who Cares for Aging Parents in Canada? Options in Canada include: in-home care (private and publicly funded) independent-supportive living, e.g., full-service residences or apartments retirement homes nursing homes and homes for the aged palliative care and hospice care facilities (continued)

21. Development in the Real World: Who Cares for Aging Parents in Canada? (continued) When family members provide the care: Canadian women are the ones most likely to be actively involved in the care-giving of their elderly parents and, in their later years, an elderly spouse As many as 90% of the primary caregivers for elders with Alzheimer’s disease are either daughters or daughters-in-law When sons are involved in the care of an elder, they experience far less caregiver burden than do daughters (continued)

22. Development in the Real World: Who Cares for Aging Parents in Canada? (continued) Multidimensional interventions (e.g. education for the caregiver about the care recipient’s condition or illness and availability of resources, counselling sessions, and support groups) can ease the strain of caregiver burden

23. G. Friends The total number of friendships is lower than in young adulthood Mid-life friendships are as intimate and close as at earlier ages Since role conflicts are fewer at this age, the need for a social network for emotional support may be less Friendship depends less on frequent contact than on a sense that friends are there to provide support as needed

24. H. Continuity and Change in Personality Many studies show that the Big Five personality traits (conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, extraversion) are relatively stable from childhood to old age There are subtle age-related changes in the five factors across the years of adulthood: Openness, extraversion, and neuroticism decline as adults age Agreeableness increases up until around age 70 and conscientiousness increases as well (continued)

25. H. Continuity and Change in Personality (continued) Longitudinal studies show that many individuals, particularly women, become less negative over time Tolerance for risk-taking and impulsivity decline with age Stability is the general pattern, but the increased variability in personality that is typically found among middle-aged and older adults suggests that change is clearly possible Personality is an important contributor to middle-aged adults’ capacity for managing stress

26. III. MID-LIFE CAREER ISSUES Work satisfaction is at its peak in these years, despite the fact that most adults receive few work promotions in middle age The quality of work performance remains high, despite declines in some cognitive or physical skills

27. A. Work Satisfaction Burnout: lack of energy, exhaustion, and pessimism that results from chronic stress Middle-aged workers who have avoided burnout in high-stress professions are those who have learned to pace themselves and to rely less on external sources of job satisfaction Job satisfaction (combined with a sense of power and control in the job) is typically at its peak in the middle years Women worry much more than men about the effects of having children on their career advancement Men and women cite the same sources of work dissatisfaction in middle age: time pressure, difficult co-workers, boring tasks, and fear of losing one’s job

28. B. Job Performance Job performance remains high throughout the middle years of adulthood unless physical strength or speedy reaction time are critical elements Selective optimization with compensation (Baltes & Baltes) helps maintain productivity: Selection involves narrowing one's range of activities, by focusing on only the most central tasks, delegating more responsibilities to others, or giving up or reducing peripheral job activities Optimization involves the deliberate "exercise" of crucial abilities so as to remain as close to maximum skill as possible Compensation involves pragmatic strategies for overcoming specific obstacles, such as getting stronger glasses or hearing aids, or devising ways to reduce memory loads with systematic list-making

29. C. Unemployment and Career Transitions Career changes, common in today’s job market, can be more difficult for middle aged people Employers tend to favour younger people as new employees Involuntary career changers: Experience more mental health disorders and physical illness (including higher levels of mortality) Financial stress and deterioration in marital relations are direct and indirect causes Level of impact is related to coping skills and strength of supportive relationships Reemployment reverses these trends (continued)

30. Unemployment and Career Transitions (continued) Voluntary career changers leave one career to pursue another for a variety of internal reasons, such as finding a new job that is more fulfilling The tendency to change careers may have a genetic basis (McCall et al) Such changes are a by-product of personality Voluntary changers have a higher risk tolerance Change can still be stressful, resulting in the same effects noted in involuntary changers

31. D. Preparing for Retirement Many middle-aged adults begin to prepare for retirement, often as early as 15 years before their anticipated date One aspect of preparation is a gradual reduction in workload Retirement is a relatively new phenomenon Behaviours of current retirees may differ widely from those currently preparing for retirement Until recently, retirement planning was almost exclusively a male responsibility (continued)

32. Preparing for Retirement(continued) Retirement preparations of the Baby Boomers: Women are involved in retirement planning The expected length of retirement is far longer than that of earlier generations, 20 years or more Most expect to continue a relatively high standard of living, but do not expect Old Age Security or Canada Pension Plan to meet their lifestyle needs Most Baby Boomers expect to work at least part-time during their retirement Baby Boomers have devoted much thought to what they would like to do during their retirement years but few have devoted as much energy to preparing for the financial aspects of retirement Boomers are predicted to be the healthiest, best-educated and longest-living retirees in history