chapter 2: stress

1. Chapter 2: Stress What is stress Types of stress Individual differences Occupational stress management

2. The �victims� Stress affects both managers & the �middle class� Common causes: long hours, fast pace, competitive culture, uncertain environment, shift working, excessive fatigue, �

3. The cost Health & Safety Executive (HSE): 2003: the UK industry lost �370 million 2003: the UK paid �3.75 billion to treat stress-related illness and other social consequences

4. What is stress? The term is widely used = does not mean anything A cause, an effect or a combination of the two? Three different approaches: Stress as a response Stress as a cause The appraisal concept

5. Stress as a response The general adaptation syndrome (Hans Selye): Stage1: stage of alarm (the organism identifies an environmental demand as threatening) Stage 2: stage of resistance (organism gathers resources to cope with the demand) Stage 3: stage of exhaustion (demand is not met and resources are worn out- serious damage may occur)

6. Stress as a response Stress is seen as a physiological response to an external demand The GAS may affect a subsystem or an entire organism Criticism: too simplistic, neglects stress as a cause

7. Stress as a cause Emphasis on sources of stress (stressors), i.e. a cause/a factor that may be causing stress Examples: objective features of work and work roles Criticism: too simplistic neglects the frequency, duration, intensity and severity of stressful events assumes that all individuals react similarly to similar situations

8. The appraisal concept of stress Stress = a function of an individual�s appraisal of a situation SITUATION (assumption: the situation is not necessarily stressful) APPRAISAL (what is at stake - available resources) High stress Low stress

9. The appraisal concept of stress (+s and �s) (-) What do we mean by appraisal? How do we measure appraisal? Appraisal dimensions: Time pressure (right now!) Sense of injustice (it�s not fair) Distress intolerance (I can�t stand this) Catastrophizing (the worse will happen)

10. The appraisal concept of stress (+s and �s) (+) Psychological factors (i.e. personality) are taken into consideration in this approach If you are a high hardy personality: Life is meaningful, controllable, manageable You retain a basic sense of purpose Believe in yourself & what you are doing! Feel that you can make things happen, things don�t happen to you!

11. The appraisal concept of stress Emphasis on the evaluative processes (i.e. what is at stake, resources) through which we make sense of stressors Stress is transactional, not interactional, i.e. Stress = a process itself, not an element of a process Modern concept of stress founded on the appraisal concept

12. Types of stress at work Some aspects of work may cause strain to a significant proportion of individuals Why study? To improve quality of working life Role stressors Decision-making stress Workplace stressors

13. Types of stress at work: role stressors Role ambiguity: i.e. don�t know what is expected Boundary-spanning roles: i.e. taking the activities of the company to the outside world Single role conflict: i.e. where various components of a role conflict

14. Types of stress at work: role stressors Multiple role conflict: where the demands of one role clash with the demands of another role Work role transitions: Stress caused by entering a new job & experiencing a new, uncertain environment

15. Types of stress at work: role stressors Entrapment (source of stress): i.e. when the individual feels trapped in a role Common causes: - career path blocked - no/ limited opportunities for advancement/ to retrain (middle age) Dealing with entrapment: Negotiate career plans, involve in project teams, restructure the company

16. Types of stress at work: role stressors Entrapment Frustration Apathy BURNOUT i.e. where the individual has a negative attitude towards the job (extreme emotional state)

17. Types of stress at work: role stressors Burnout: Emotional exhaustion: emotional resources are inadequate for emotionally demanding problems Cynicism: indifference to work and others Professional efficacy: having negative expectations of one�s own effectiveness Burnout affects employee health!

18. Types of stress at work: role stressors Factors that predict burnout: Satisfaction Commitment Social support Participation in decision making Autonomy Emotional exhaustion (only) been related to performance

19. Types of stress at work: decision-making stress Stress caused when having to make a decision Impaired ability: judgement! Cause: Stress Manifestation: categorical thinking- �only one right answer�

20. Types of stress at work: decision-making stress 5 approaches to decision-making stress: Unconflicted adherence: don�t do anything Unconflicted change: uncritically adopting a course of action Defensive avoidance: delay & finally pick the easiest Hypervigilance: frantically searching for an immediate solution Vigilance: making a well-informed decision!

21. Types of stress at work: decision-making stress Training judgement under stress: Conceptualization: Understand the situation Understand why one feels stressed Skill acquisition & activation: Identify lack of skill Identify lack of ability to apply skills Rehearsal & application: Practice & apply new skills (e.g. role play)

22. Types of stress at work: decision-making stress Psychological context (i.e.attitudinal, personality & cognitive variables) is deeply embedded in individuals Transfer training to the workplace: Commitment (trainee & peers) Intensive training

23. Types of stress at work: Workplace stressors Examples: poor work environment poor work design poor management noise, vibration, heat Normal: function under conditions of moderate stimulations

24. Types of stress at work: Workplace stressors 1) Under-stimulation: frequently underutilization of skills Cause: Repetitive work Responses: low motivation, absenteeism, apathy, stress-related illnesses, etc.

25. Types of stress at work: Workplace stressors 2) Over-stimulation: coping with too much! Responses: ulcers, hypertension, depression, etc Stressor: deadlines Coping strategies/moderators: long hours, control (Karasek�s model)

26. Types of stress at work: Workplace stressors 3) Workplace hassles: i.e. daily re-occurring demands Higher impact on low-complexity tasks Lower impact on more complex tasks More complex tasks offer more coping options

27. Types of stress at work: Workplace stressors Social support - Work performance - Work outcomes Outcomes: Burnout Social stressors Animosities Bullying Harassment Outcomes: - Depressive symptom

28. Individual differences Different people act in different ways Different people experience stress differently Self-esteem & self-efficacy

29. Individual differences Negative affectivity (NA) i.e. is the glass half-full or half-empty?

30. Individual differences Type As & Type Bs Type A: Achieve goals Compete Desire for recognition & promotion Multitasking Doing things fast High alertness Type B: relaxed

31. Individual differences: As & Bs Time urgency: For As time passes too quickly Competitive & hard driving style: As work faster & harder than Bs Suppression of symptoms: As report less fatigue & complain less than Bs Hostility & Aggressiveness: As more impatient, aggressive, hostile than Bs

32. Occupational Stress Management Occupational Stress Management i.e. an attempt to deal with the effects of stress Individual differences are still important! Strategies Individual Strategies Organizational strategies

33. Occupational Stress Management: Individual Strategies Appraisal focused: a) Logical analysis b) Cognitive redefinition c) Cognitive avoidance Problem focused: a) Obtain guidance b) Direct action c) Role innovation Emotion focused: a) Affective regulation b) Resigned acceptance c) Palliatives d) Emotional discharge

34. Occupational Stress Management: Organizational Strategies Physical exercise, fitness, nutritional advice i.e. provide a gym, etc Biofeedback i.e. measuring pulse, blood pressure, etc & providing feedback Progressive muscle relaxation i.e. relax high levels of residual muscle tension Imagery training i.e. imagining being in a restful place