Environmental Biology for Engineers and Scientists D.A. Vaccari, P.F. Strom, and J.E. Alleman © John Wiley & Sons, 2

1. Environmental Biologyfor Engineers and ScientistsD.A. Vaccari, P.F. Strom, and J.E. Alleman© John Wiley & Sons, 2005 Chapter 14 - Ecology

2. C3 – 2 P – 1 C2 – 120,000 P – 90,000 C1 – 150,000 P – 200,000 P – 1,500,000 P – 200 Grassland (summer) Temperate forest (summer) C2 - 4 C1 - 21 C1 - 11 P - 4 P – 96 English Channel Wisconsin lake (A) (B) Figure 14-1. Examples of several types of trophic pyramids. (A) Pyramid of numbers of individuals per 0.1 hectare, not including microorganisms and soil animals. (B) Pyramid of biomass – grams dry weight per square meter. [Based on Odum]

3. (C) C3 - 21 C2 - 383 C1 - 3368 S - 5060 P – 20,810 Energy flow C2 - 3 C2 - 6 (D) C1 - 10 C1 - 12 C3 – 1.5 C2 - 11 P – 2 P – 100 C1 - 37 S - 5 Winter Spring P – 809 Standing crop Figure 14-1. Examples of several types of trophic pyramids. (C) Standing crop (in kcal/m2) versus energy flow (in kcal/m2/yr) pyramids for Silver Springs, Florida.(D) Seasonal change in biomass pyramid in the water column (net plankton only) of an Italian lake (mg/m3). [Based on Odum Fig 3-18, pg 152].

4. Figure 14-2. • Next two slides: Food webs for an • unpolluted and • a polluted marsh/estuary. • [from “Water Quality in a Recovering Ecosystem”, C.P. Mattson and N.C. Vallario, Hackensack Meadowlands Development Commission, 1975.].

5. Plovers Sandpipers Willet Periwinkles Terrapin Clapper rail Blowfish Sea Robin Oyster Mosquito (a) Mussels Clams Fiddler Crab Oystercatcher Snails Herring Gull Glossy Ibis Dowitchers Mud Algae Blue Crabs MarshPlants Killifish Stickleback Silversides Sheepshead Minnow Geese EXPORT Detritus Ducks Winter Flounder Man Gulls Terns Bluefish Striped Bass Muskrat Raccoon Amphipods Shrimp Ribbed Mussel Weakfish MiceVoles Summer Flounder Spotted Sea Trout Shark Grasshoppers & Leaf hoppers

6. Clapper rail Mosquito (b) Fiddler Crab Herring Gull Glossy Ibis Dowitchers Mud Algae MarshPlants Killifish Stickleback Silversides Sheepshead Minnow Geese EXPORT Detritus Ducks Man Gulls Terns Muskrat Raccoon Weakfish MiceVoles Shark Grasshoppers & Leaf hoppers

7. Figure 14-3. Generalized global biogeochemical cycle. (Based on Krebs) Atmosphere Volatilization and evaporation Precipitation, deposition, absorption Volatilization and evaporation Terrestrial food web Death Dead organic matter Uptake Runoff Marine food web Dissolved minerals Dead organic matter Decomposition Weathering Sinking Lithosphere Geological processes

8. Figure 14-4. The sedimentary cycle. The three sedimentary pathways: a) mantle; b) subduction zone volcanic activity; c) crustal motion [Based on Odum] Manmade fallout Natural fallout Sediment and sedimentary rock Weathering and Erosion Subduction zone Granitic Continent Basalt Basalt Mantle

9. Figure 14-5. The global carbon cycle. Units: 1015 g C or 1015 g C/yr. (Based on Krebs) Atmosphere 720 Photosynthesis and respiration 120 Deforestation, land use change and burning 0 - 2 5 Exchange 90 Absorption 2 Land plants 500-800 Rivers 0.5 - 2 Soil and detritus 1500 40 Ocean surface 1020 Marine Biota 3 50 91.6 4 6 100 Fossil fuel 6000 Carbonate rocks 10,000,000 DOC <700 Intermediate and deep water 35,000 0.2 Sediments 150

10. The Biosphere II experiment in Oracle, Arizona. Photo by Ed Flora.

11. Figure 14-6. The hydrologic cycle. UNITS 1018 g or 1018 g/yr [Based on Odum] Atmosphere 13 Vapor transport to land 37.4 Evaporation transpiration 72.9 Precipitation on the sea 385.7 Precipitation on land 110.3 Evaporation from the sea 423.1 Ice 29,000 Runoff 37.4 Lakes and Rivers 130 Ocean 1,370,000 Groundwater 9,500

12. Atmosphere Land and water Figure 14-7. Fluxes in the global nitrogen cycle. Estimated fluxes in Tg/yr. Ammonia, organic nitrogen and other forms also enter the atmosphere and oxidize or fall with rain. Dotted line arrows represent primarily anthropogenic fluxes. [Based on Odum and on Raven] Forest fires 12 Lightning 4 N2 Fossil fuel Combustion 21 Industrial fixation 40 Denitrification Land 107-161 Sea 40-120 NOx Biofixation Land 139 Sea 10-90 NO3- from air to: Land Sea Total Acid rain 17 9 26 Dry deposition 15 4 19 NO3- Nitrification Volcanism 5 NH3 Assimilation 1000 Mineralization (Ammonification) Organic N

13. Figure 14-8. Another view of the global nitrogen cycle, showing storage reservoirs of nitrogen. Values are kg/m2. (Based on Whittaker, 1975.) NH3 Atmosphere 0.000024 N2 Atmosphere 7550 N2O Atmosphere 0.0030 Organic N Animals 0.00215 Organic N Plants 0.067 Organic N Soil/Ocean 1.2 NO3- Soil/Ocean 0.84 N2 Ocean 42 NO2- Soil/Ocean 0.027 NH3 Soil/Ocean 0.056 N2O Ocean 0.00062 NH4+ Igneous Rocks 860 NO3- Sediments 0.005 Organic N Sediments 8800

14. -1 +3 +6 +1 0 +4 +5 +2 -2 Biochemical sulfur transformations. Sulfur Oxidation States Anoxic sulfate reducing bacteria Sulfide generating bacteria Anoxic sulfite reducing bacteria Anoxic thiosulfate reducing bacteria = = = H2S S0 S2 O3 SO3 SO4 Hydrogen Sulfur Thiosulfate Sulfite Sulfate Sulfide Sulfide oxidizers Elemental sulfur oxidizers

15. Figure 14-9. The global sulfur cycle. Units: 1012 g S/yr. [Based on Krebs] Aerial transport to sea Wet and dry deposition 84 81 Dust 20 Industrial 93 Aerial transport to land 20 Volcanism 10 Biogenic gases 22 Sea salt 144 Biogenic gases 43 Volcanism 10 Deposition 258 Rivers 213 Mining 149 Weathering and erosion 72 Hydrothermal sulfides 96 Pyrite 39

16. Figure 14-10. Example phosphorus cycle from a Georgia salt marsh. Reservoirs are in mg P/m2, fluxes are in mg P/d/m3. Uptake by Spartina and release from detritus vary seasonally as shown.[Based on Odum] Filter feeders 175 6 6 Water 30 16.4 (avg) Detritus 10,000 9.8 9.8 16.4 (avg) Spartina 660 Sediments 500,000

17. Figure 14-11. Simplified nitrogen cycle in the Bay of Quinte, Ontario (Based on Ricklefs) X2 Particulate N J2 = k2 X2 J1 = k1X1 X1 Nitrate X3 DON J4 = k4X4 X4 Ammonia J3 = k3X3 J5 = k5X4

18. Figure 14-12. Temperature-moisture climograph. (a) The successful introduction of the Hungarian Partridge to Montana, the unsuccessful introduction to Missouri, compared to average conditions in its native breeding range in Europe. (b) Conditions in Tel Aviv, Israel showing conditions favoring an outbreak of the Mediterranean fruit fly in 1927. [Redrawn from Odum, 1983; original from Twomey, 1936.]

19. Figure 14-13. Population histogram for three different growth scenarios. Source: U.S. Census Bureau, International Data Base, September 2004 version.

20. Figure 14-14. Predicted total population changes

21. Figure 14-15. The logistic equation solution [14-26] with several parameter values, and compared to exponential growth equation [14-18]. The dashed line is N = 100. a. Logistic equation with r0 = 1.0, K = 100, N(0) = 5.0; b. Logistic equation with r0 = 0.75, K = 100, N(0) = 5.0; c. Logistic equation with r0 = 1.0, K = 70, N(0) = 5.0; d. Logistic equation with r0 = 1.0, K = 100, N(0) = 150.; e. Exponential equation with r0 = 0.7, N(0) = 5.0

22. Figure 14-16. U.S. population data with logistic equation fit by Pearl and Reed, and updated logistic equation fitted to years 1950-1990.

23. Figure 14-17. Oscillations in predator-prey populations. Example is a predatory wasp [Heterospilus prosopidis] and its host the weevil [Callosobruchus chinensis]. Data from Utida, 1957.

24. (a) (b) • Figure 14-18. Simulation results of the Lotka-Volterra equations. • Time domain plot with H(0) = 100 and P(0) = 10. • Phase-plane plot (P vs. H) for various initial conditions, and the equilibrium point.

25. Closed communities Ecotone Ecotone Ecotone Abundance Environmental gradient Open communities Abundance Environmental gradient Figure 14-19. Population distributions along a hypothetical environmental gradient. (a) Closed communities; (b) Open communities. [Based on Ricklefs]