The Inexcusable Absence of Girls from School

1. The Inexcusable Absence of Girls from School Marlaine Lockheed Center for Global Development November 15, 2007

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3. 3 What I will discuss today Girls are catching up with boys Girls from excluded groups still lag What keeps excluded girls out of school? What is needed? What can donors do?

4. 4 Gender parity has improved for primary education, worldwide The ratio of female to male primary enrollment rates has risen in all regions, from 1960 to 2000The ratio of female to male primary enrollment rates has risen in all regions, from 1960 to 2000

5. 5 �and for secondary education in most regions, 1990-2000 The same is true for secondary education in all regions but Europe and Central Asia, which showed a slight decline between 1990 and 2000. The same is true for secondary education in all regions but Europe and Central Asia, which showed a slight decline between 1990 and 2000.

6. 6 But problems remain. In 2004 77 million children were out of school 43 million girls were out of school About 70 percent of out-of-school girls come from �socially excluded groups�

7. 7 Who are the socially excluded groups? Stigmatized groups Ethnically different groups Groups accorded low status �Involuntary� minority groups Stigmatized by recent historical trauma at the hands of a majority population Ethnic differences Low status, because excluded groups are ranked in value below the majority population in the social hierarchy Involuntary minority status in the populationStigmatized by recent historical trauma at the hands of a majority population Ethnic differences Low status, because excluded groups are ranked in value below the majority population in the social hierarchy Involuntary minority status in the population

8. 8 Excluded groups differ across regions Groups are excluded on the basis of ethnicity, language, poverty, remoteness. Exclusion sidelines certain groups, denying them social rights and protection. It limits opportunities throgh social isolation, limited access to education, and discrimination in schools and the labor market, creating an uneven playing field. Groups are excluded on the basis of ethnicity, language, poverty, remoteness. Exclusion sidelines certain groups, denying them social rights and protection. It limits opportunities throgh social isolation, limited access to education, and discrimination in schools and the labor market, creating an uneven playing field.

9. 9 Social exclusion of girls is most serious in LAC, EAP and ECA Among those out of school, we estimate that nearly all those out of school in Latin America and the Caribbean region come from excluded groups, and that about 90 percent of those out of school in East Asia and Europe and Central Asia come from such groups. In all countries, children from socially excluded groups lag behind in Enrollment in school Completion/ graduation from school Performance Girls disproportionately lag in school participation But when given the chance, girls do better than boys in school The challenge: getting and keeping disadvantaged children in school Among those out of school, we estimate that nearly all those out of school in Latin America and the Caribbean region come from excluded groups, and that about 90 percent of those out of school in East Asia and Europe and Central Asia come from such groups. In all countries, children from socially excluded groups lag behind in Enrollment in school Completion/ graduation from school Performance Girls disproportionately lag in school participation But when given the chance, girls do better than boys in school The challenge: getting and keeping disadvantaged children in school

10. 10 For example, this chart shows that indigenous girls, ages 7-24, are least likely to have ever been enrolled in school in Guatemala. As a consequence, only 26 percent of indigenous, non-Spanish-speaking, girls complete primary school, compared with 62 percent of Spanish-speaking girls.For example, this chart shows that indigenous girls, ages 7-24, are least likely to have ever been enrolled in school in Guatemala. As a consequence, only 26 percent of indigenous, non-Spanish-speaking, girls complete primary school, compared with 62 percent of Spanish-speaking girls.

11. 11 In Laos, Hill Tribe girls living in rural communities complete fewer than two years of school whereas majority Lao-Tai girls living in urban communities complete eight years of school. In Laos, Hill Tribe girls living in rural communities complete fewer than two years of school whereas majority Lao-Tai girls living in urban communities complete eight years of school.

12. 12 In ECA, fewer Roma COMPLETE SECONDARY than non-Roma (Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, Serbia/Montenegro) The percentage of Roma children who complete at least secondary education is approximately half that of non-Roma children in Bulgaria and Serbia/Montenegro and about three quarters that in Hungary and Romania. Across all countries, we find that the more ethnic or linguistic diversity within a country, the larger the gender gap in schooling As for learning, when given the chance to go to school The achievement of �excluded� children is generally lower than that of �mainstream� children But girls� achievement is comparable, and in some cases better, than that of boys The percentage of Roma children who complete at least secondary education is approximately half that of non-Roma children in Bulgaria and Serbia/Montenegro and about three quarters that in Hungary and Romania. Across all countries, we find that the more ethnic or linguistic diversity within a country, the larger the gender gap in schooling As for learning, when given the chance to go to school The achievement of �excluded� children is generally lower than that of �mainstream� children But girls� achievement is comparable, and in some cases better, than that of boys

13. 13 Indigenous girls outperform indigenous boys in Ecuador On a national test of mathematics administered to Grade 5 students in Ecuador, children from the majority group scored higher than indigenous boys, but indigenous girls performance was equal to that of majority boys and girls (and higher than that of indigenous boys)On a national test of mathematics administered to Grade 5 students in Ecuador, children from the majority group scored higher than indigenous boys, but indigenous girls performance was equal to that of majority boys and girls (and higher than that of indigenous boys)

14. 14 Majority students outperform Hill Tribes, with no gender differences (Laos) However in Laos, on a test of reading in Grade 6, while majority children outperformed minority children, there were no gender differences in performance.However in Laos, on a test of reading in Grade 6, while majority children outperformed minority children, there were no gender differences in performance.

15. 15 What keeps socially excluded girls out of school? Administrative or legal barriers Poor quality and limited supply of education Low demand for girls� education

16. 16 Administrative and legal barriers Fixed number of schools per community Pregnancy and expulsion Dominant group language as medium of instruction and in textbooks Selection examinations and tracking Absence of compulsory education laws Administrative rules often serve as unintended barriers to girls and children from excluded group. For example, a rule in Pakistan regarding single sex schools meant that communities needed to build separate schools for boys and girls. This proved to be an economic hardship in many rural communities, so they built boys schools first. This requirement for single sex schools essentially kept the girls out of school. In Africa, The forum for African Women Educationalists found that rules requiring girls to be expelled from school if they were pregnant meant that the girls had no chance to complete their education. Rules about language of instruction can handicap children from excluded groups. In many countries, the language of instruction in school is not the same as the child�s mother tongue, and Unicef has found that girls are particularly disadvantaged by this practice. Many countries offer mother-tongue instruction at the primary level to compensate for this disadvantage. And selection examinations and tracking exclude many children from more demanding programs and limit their future opportunities. In Latin America, researchers found that schools that did not group children by ability actually had higher achievement than those that practiced tracking. Finally, several dozen countries still lack laws requiring universal schooling � in 2001 there were 43 such countries. Rules and laws can serve as unintended barriers to education.Administrative rules often serve as unintended barriers to girls and children from excluded group. For example, a rule in Pakistan regarding single sex schools meant that communities needed to build separate schools for boys and girls. This proved to be an economic hardship in many rural communities, so they built boys schools first. This requirement for single sex schools essentially kept the girls out of school. In Africa, The forum for African Women Educationalists found that rules requiring girls to be expelled from school if they were pregnant meant that the girls had no chance to complete their education. Rules about language of instruction can handicap children from excluded groups. In many countries, the language of instruction in school is not the same as the child�s mother tongue, and Unicef has found that girls are particularly disadvantaged by this practice. Many countries offer mother-tongue instruction at the primary level to compensate for this disadvantage. And selection examinations and tracking exclude many children from more demanding programs and limit their future opportunities. In Latin America, researchers found that schools that did not group children by ability actually had higher achievement than those that practiced tracking. Finally, several dozen countries still lack laws requiring universal schooling � in 2001 there were 43 such countries. Rules and laws can serve as unintended barriers to education.

17. 17 Supply and quality of schooling Lack of schools Inadequate facilities and physical inputs Less knowledgeable teachers Less instructional time Teacher absenteeism Fewer textbooks and instructional materials Particularly in local languages Excluded groups often live in remote areas, and their communities may simply lack any school at all. In addition, when such schools do exist, they often lack suitable facilities, textbooks and instructional materials. Moreover, difficulties in placing teachers in remote areas may result in less qualified (or knowledgable) teachers working in these areas or in less instructional time due to teacher absenteeism or lateness. In Bangladesh, for example, teachers assigned to rural schools arrived on average two hours late and taught for two hours only, effectively cutting the learning time by 50% In Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique and Uganda, more than 60 percent of all grade 6 students lacked textbooks, with higher rates in rural communities. The effects of school quality on the participation and learning of excluded girls has only been investigated in a handful of countries, but in Egypt, girls attending multi-shift schools with less instructional time were 5- times more likely to drop out, compared with girls attending single-shift schools with more instructional time. And in rural Laos, school participation of girls was higher in schools that had better facilities (electricity, desks and non-leaking roofs).Excluded groups often live in remote areas, and their communities may simply lack any school at all. In addition, when such schools do exist, they often lack suitable facilities, textbooks and instructional materials. Moreover, difficulties in placing teachers in remote areas may result in less qualified (or knowledgable) teachers working in these areas or in less instructional time due to teacher absenteeism or lateness. In Bangladesh, for example, teachers assigned to rural schools arrived on average two hours late and taught for two hours only, effectively cutting the learning time by 50% In Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique and Uganda, more than 60 percent of all grade 6 students lacked textbooks, with higher rates in rural communities. The effects of school quality on the participation and learning of excluded girls has only been investigated in a handful of countries, but in Egypt, girls attending multi-shift schools with less instructional time were 5- times more likely to drop out, compared with girls attending single-shift schools with more instructional time. And in rural Laos, school participation of girls was higher in schools that had better facilities (electricity, desks and non-leaking roofs).

18. 18 In fact, in most countries, children in rural communities are much less likely to attend school than those in urban communities, and the urban and rural gap is much greater than the gender gap in schooling In fact, in most countries, children in rural communities are much less likely to attend school than those in urban communities, and the urban and rural gap is much greater than the gender gap in schooling

19. 19 Weak demand for education Cultural considerations Cost of schooling Safety and security of girls Perceived low rates of return for education Discrimination in labor markets Parents may wish to keep children out of school for many reasons, including a general resistance to change, a desire to retain a separate ethnic identity or disinterest with what school have to offer. The direct and indirect costs of school may also be more salient for excluded groups, as excluded groups are often among the poorest, and direct costs may impact on them more severely. This may lead to household decisions to educate sons rather than daughters. Even when parents want their daughters in school, they may worry about their safety away from home, traveling to and from school. Distance poses particular problems for girls in secondary school, when they become targets for rape and abduction, which is not only traumatic for the girls but often compromises the social status of their households. Exclusion and gender discrimination lead to lower return to education, which also tends to suppress the demand for education. Parents who believe that education will yield long-term returns are more willing to send their children to school, and low rates of return discourages households from investing in girls education. Parents may wish to keep children out of school for many reasons, including a general resistance to change, a desire to retain a separate ethnic identity or disinterest with what school have to offer. The direct and indirect costs of school may also be more salient for excluded groups, as excluded groups are often among the poorest, and direct costs may impact on them more severely. This may lead to household decisions to educate sons rather than daughters. Even when parents want their daughters in school, they may worry about their safety away from home, traveling to and from school. Distance poses particular problems for girls in secondary school, when they become targets for rape and abduction, which is not only traumatic for the girls but often compromises the social status of their households. Exclusion and gender discrimination lead to lower return to education, which also tends to suppress the demand for education. Parents who believe that education will yield long-term returns are more willing to send their children to school, and low rates of return discourages households from investing in girls education.

20. 20 What is needed? Administrative and legal reform Education reform Incentives and information Refer to Chapter 4 of Inexcusable AbsenceRefer to Chapter 4 of Inexcusable Absence

21. 21 Administrative and legal reform to level the playing field Revised administrative rules Laws against discrimination in school Laws against discrimination in the labor market Policy setting determines the environment in which excluded groups must maneuver, and it affects the cridibility of government in efforts to reach children who are out of school. Although policies alone ensure little, having clear mandates against discrimination, a legal system that enforces both entitlements and rights of all citizens, administrative rules that foster enrollment of all children and an articulated policy regarding excluded groups in education are essential. Policy setting determines the environment in which excluded groups must maneuver, and it affects the cridibility of government in efforts to reach children who are out of school. Although policies alone ensure little, having clear mandates against discrimination, a legal system that enforces both entitlements and rights of all citizens, administrative rules that foster enrollment of all children and an articulated policy regarding excluded groups in education are essential.

22. 22 Education reform to diversify and improve school supply Preparing children for school Ensuring the school basics Involving parents and community Compensatory programs (e.g.tutoring) Extension courses for secluded girls Pre-school programs, particularly those involving mothers, have been found to have long term effects of children�s learning. They are particularly important for children from poor families and for children who speak a mother tongue different from the language of instruction in school. Bi-lingual programs Schools need the basics � such as teachers, books, other learning materials and a curriculum that is engaging and relevant. Studies in Chile have found that when additional resources have been provided to the poorest performing schools, the achievement gap between indigenous and non-indigenous children has declined significantly. Community schools with parental involvement Compensatory programs may be critical to keep children from excluded groups in school and to compensate for the absence of educational reinforcements at home. After-school programs for the disadvantaged have been found effective in Brazil, India and Spain, for example. Compensatory instruction (e.g.tutoring) has been found to have strong positive effects in India, where tutors worked with lower performing children after school. Finally, in some countries, adolescent girls are secluded for cultural reasons. In these countries, radio or television extension courses can provide access to education. Pre-school programs, particularly those involving mothers, have been found to have long term effects of children�s learning. They are particularly important for children from poor families and for children who speak a mother tongue different from the language of instruction in school. Bi-lingual programs Schools need the basics � such as teachers, books, other learning materials and a curriculum that is engaging and relevant. Studies in Chile have found that when additional resources have been provided to the poorest performing schools, the achievement gap between indigenous and non-indigenous children has declined significantly. Community schools with parental involvement Compensatory programs may be critical to keep children from excluded groups in school and to compensate for the absence of educational reinforcements at home. After-school programs for the disadvantaged have been found effective in Brazil, India and Spain, for example. Compensatory instruction (e.g.tutoring) has been found to have strong positive effects in India, where tutors worked with lower performing children after school. Finally, in some countries, adolescent girls are secluded for cultural reasons. In these countries, radio or television extension courses can provide access to education.

23. 23 Incentives and knowledge to increase demand Incentives for households: CCTs and scholarships Better linkages of (secondary) school with labor markets (English, computer skills) Better information about returns to education in the labor market Conditional cash transfers provide resources to households that engage in desirable behaviors, such as enrolling and keeping their children in school. Evaluations of CCT programs in Latin America and Bangladesh have found positive impacts on children�s school participation. Girls scholarship programs have also been found to not only boost school participation, but also to raise achievement. Conditional cash transfers provide resources to households that engage in desirable behaviors, such as enrolling and keeping their children in school. Evaluations of CCT programs in Latin America and Bangladesh have found positive impacts on children�s school participation. Girls scholarship programs have also been found to not only boost school participation, but also to raise achievement.

24. 24 In summary Girls are catching up with boys, but girls from excluded groups still lag Legal/adminstrative , supply and demand constraints keep girls out of school Extra efforts are needed What can donors do?

25. 25 CGD suggests four areas for donor actions Disaggregate data by gender and exclusion Target resources at excluded girls Recognize that extra efforts entail extra costs Evaluate what works Support the production of school participation and achievement data disaggregated by gender and exclusion Establish a trust fund for multilateral programs targeted at excluded girls Encourage demand and financing for compensatory costs associate with reaching excluded children Expand the knowledge base through a girls� education evaluation fundSupport the production of school participation and achievement data disaggregated by gender and exclusion Establish a trust fund for multilateral programs targeted at excluded girls Encourage demand and financing for compensatory costs associate with reaching excluded children Expand the knowledge base through a girls� education evaluation fund

26. 26 Electronic copies of Inexcusable Absence and Exclusion, Gender and Education can be downloaded from www.cgdev.org