Chapter 2

1. Chapter 2 The process and problems of social research

2. Social research is done through the process of: • Specifying a research question • Developing an appropriate research strategy • Choosing appropriate units of analysis • Conforming to scientific and ethical guidelines

3. What is the question? • A social research question is a question about • the social world that you seek to answer through • the collection and analysis of firsthand, verifiable, • empirical data. • But that doesn’t mean it is easy to specify a research • question. In fact, formulating a good research question • can be surprisingly difficult.

4. What makes a research question “good”? Feasibility: Can you start and finish an investigation with available resources and in the time allotted? Social importance: Will the answer make a difference in the social world, even if it only helps people understand a problem? Scientific relevance: Does your question help resolve some contradictory research findings or a puzzling issue in social theory?

5. What is the theory? • Building and evaluating theory is one of the most • important objectives of social science. • A theory is a logically interrelated set of propositions that • helps us make sense of many interrelated phenomena and • predict behavior or attitudes that are likely to occur when • certain conditions are met. • Social theories suggest the areas on which we should • focus and the propositions that we should consider • testing.

6. How do we find relevant social theory and prior research? • You’ll find that in any area of research, developing • an understanding of relevant theories will help you • to ask important questions, consider reasonable • alternatives and choose appropriate research procedures. • The social science research community is large and active, • and new research results appear continually in scholarly • journals and books. • The World Wide Web is also a good source.

7. What is the strategy? • When we conduct social research, we are attempting to • connect theory with empirical data—the evidence we • obtain from the social world. • Deductive research--starting with a social theory and then • testing some of its implications with data. • Inductive research--first collecting the data and then • developing a theory that explains patterns in the data. • A research project can use both strategies.

8. Deductive research • In deductive research a specific expectation is deduced from a general theoretical premise and then tested with data that have • been collected for this purpose. • We call the specific expectation deduced from the more • general theory a hypothesis. • A hypothesis proposes a relationship between two or • more variables—characteristics or properties that can vary.

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10. Variation in one variable is proposed to predict, • influence, or cause variation in the other variable. • The proposed influence is the independent variable; its • effect or consequence is the dependent variable. • After the researchers formulate one or more hypotheses • and develop research procedures, they collect data with • which to test the hypothesis.

11. Direction of association • A pattern in a relationship between two variables---that • is, the value of a variable tends to change consistently in • relation to change in the other variable • When researchers hypothesize that one variable increases • as the other variable increases, the direction of association • is positive . • But when one variable increases as the other decreases, • or vice versa, the direction of association is • negative, or inverse .

12. Inductive research • Inductive researchbegins with specific data, which • are then used to develop (induce) a general explanation • (a theory) to account for the data. • Inductive reasoning enters into deductive research when we • find unexpected patterns in the data we have collected for • testing a hypothesis. • We may call these patterns serendipitous findings • or anomalous findings.

13. What is the design? • Researchers usually start with a question, though some begin with a • theory or a strategy. • If you are very systematic, the question is related to a theory, and an • appropriate strategy is chosen for the research. • There are several different types of research designs. • One important distinction between the types is whether data are collected • at one point in time or at two or more points in time. • Another distinction is whether the design focuses on individuals or on groups.

14. Cross-sectional designs • In a cross-sectional research design, all data are collected • at one point in time. Identifying the time order of effects— • what happened first, and so on—is critical for developing • a causal analysis, but can be an insurmountable problem • with a cross-sectional design.

15. Longitudinal Designs • In longitudinal research designs, data are collected • at two or more points in time, and so identification of • the time order of effects can be quite straightforward. • By measuring the value of cases on an independent variable • and a dependent variable at different times, the researcher • can determine whether variation in the independent variable • precedes variation in the dependent variable. • The value of longitudinal data is so great that every effort • should be made to develop longitudinal research designs • when they are appropriate for the search question asked.

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17. Types of longitudinal designs • Repeated cross-sectional design (trend study). • A type of longitudinal study in which data are collected • at two or more points in time from different samples of the • same population. • Fixed-sample panel design (panel study). A type of • longitudinal study in which data are collected from the • same individuals—the panel—at two or more points in time. • In another type of panel design, panel members who • leave are replaced with new members.

18. Types of longitudinal designs con’t • Event-based design (cohort study). A type of • longitudinal study in which data are collected at two • or more points in time from individuals in a cohort.

19. Units and levels of analysis • Whenever we design research, we must decide whether • to use individuals or groups as our units of analysis and • whether to collect data at one or several points in time. • The decisions that we make about these design • elements will affect our ability to draw causal • conclusions in our analysis.

20. Units of analysis: the level of social life on which the • research question is focused, such as individuals, groups, • towns, or nations. • In most sociological and psychological studies, • the units of analysis are individuals.

21. Levels of analysis:from the most micro (small) to • the most macro (largest). • Conclusions about processes at the individual level • (micro) should be based on individual-level data. • Conclusions about group-level processes (macro) • should be based on data collected about groups.

22. Ecological fallacy • In most cases, when this rule is violated, we can be • misled about the existence of an association between • two variables. • A researcher who draws conclusions about individual-level • processes from group-level data could be making what • is termed an ecological fallacy.

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24. Reductionist fallacy • On the other hand, when data about individuals are • used to make inferences about group-level processes, • a problem occurs that can be thought of as the mirror • image of the ecological fallacy: the reductionist fallacy, • also known as reductionism, or the individualist fallacy.

25. But is it ethical? • Research distorted by political or personal pressures to • find particular outcomes or to achieve the most • marketable results is unlikely to be carried out in an • open and honest fashion. • Openness about research proceduresand results goes • hand in hand with honesty in research design. • Openness is also essential if researchers are to learn • from the work of others.

26. The uses of science • Scientists must consider the uses to which their • research is put. • Social scientists who conduct research for organizations • and agencies may face additional difficulties when • the organization, not the researcher, controls the • final report and the publicity it receives.

27. Research on people • Whenever we interact with other people as social • scientists we must give paramount importance to the • rational concerns and emotional needs that will shape • their responses to our actions. • It is here that ethical research practice begins, with • the recognition that our research procedures involve • people who deserve as much respect for their well-being • as we do for ours.

28. Confidentiality • Maintaining confidentiality is a key ethical obligation. • This means obtaining informed consent. • To be informed, consent must be given by persons • who are competent to consent, have consented • voluntarily, are fully informed about the research, • and have comprehended what they have been told

29. Other ethical issues • The potential of withholding treatment from some • subjects, as is done in experiments with placebos. • The extent to which ethical issues are a problem • varies dramatically with research designs. • Survey research creates few ethical problems. • But experiments can put people in uncomfortable • or embarrassing situations.

30. Institutionalreview boards (IRB) • Federal regulations require that every institution that • seeks federal funding for biomedical or behavioral • research on human subjects have an institutional • review board (IRB) that reviews research proposals. • IRBs at universities and other agencies apply ethics • standards that are set by federal regulations but can be • expanded or specified by the IRB itself.