High-Risk Births & Obstetric Emergencies

1. High-Risk Births & Obstetric Emergencies Chapter 36

2. INTRAPARTAL COMPLICATIONS • Interference with normal processes & patterns of labor/birth resulting in maternal or fetal jeopardy. • Preterm labor; dysfunctional labor patterns; prolonged labor; hemorrhage – uterine ruputure/inversion; amniotic-fluid embolus.

3. Dysfunctional Labor: • Possible Causes: • Catecholamines (response to anxiety/fear), increase physical/psychological stress, leads to myometrial dysfunction; painful & ineffective labor. • Premature or excessive analgesia, particularly during latent phase. • Maternal factors. • Fetal factors. • Placental factors. • Physical restrictions (position in bed).

4. ASSESSMENT: • Antepartal history. • Emotional status. • Vital signs, FHR. • Contraction pattern (frequency, duration, intensity). • Vaginal discharge. GOAL = to minimize physical / psychological stress during labor/birth. Emotional support.

5. Preterm Labor: • Occurs after 20 weeks gestation and before 38 weeks. • Causes may be from maternal, fetal, or placental factors. • Prevention: • Primary: close observation and eduction in S&S of labor. • Secondary: prompt, effective Rx of associated disorders. • Tertiary: suppression of preterm labor.

6. Tertiary: suppression of preterm labor • Bedrest. • Position: side-lying – to promote placental perfusion. • Hydration. • Pharmacological: betaadrenergic agents to reduce sensitivity of uterine myometrium to oxytocic & prostaglandin stimulation; increase bld flow to uterus. • Pt may be maintained at home with adequate follow-up & health teaching.

7. CONTRAINDICATIONS: for suppression of labor • Placenta previa or abruptio placenta. • Chorioamnionitis. • Erythroblastosis fetalis. • Severe preeclampsia. • Severe diabetes (brittle). • Increasing placental insufficiency. • Cervical dilation of 4 cm or more. • ROM (depends on cause & if sepsis exists).

8. Nursing Assessment: PTL • Maternal VS. Response to medication: • Hypotension • Tachycardia, arrhythmia • Dyspnea, chest pain • Nausea & vomiting • Signs of infection: • Increased temperature • Tachycardia • Diaphoresis • Malaise

9. Emotional status: denial, guilt, anxiety, exhaustion. • Signs of continuing & progressing labor: • Effacement • Dilation • Station (vaginal exam ONLY if indicated by other signs of continuing labor progress) • Status of membranes. • FHR, activity (continuous monitoring). • Ctx: frequency, duration, strength.

10. Report PROMPTLY to MD: • Maternal pulse of 110 or more. • Diastolic pressure of 60 mmHg or less. • Increase in maternal temperature. • Respirations of 24 or more; crackles (rales). • Complaint of dyspnes. • Contractions: increasing frequency, strength, duration, or cessation of ctx.

11. Intermittent back and thigh pain. • Rupture of membranes. • Vaginal bleeding. • Fetal distress. IF LABOR CONTINUES: • GOAL = facilitate infant survival; emotional support; support comfort measures; health teaching.

12. Dysfunctional Labor Pattern • Hypertonic labor • Hypotonic labor • Precipitate labor level Chapter 26

13. HYPERTONIC DYSFUNCTION: • Increased resting tone of uterine myometrium; diminished refractory period; prolonged latent phase. • Nullipara: more than 20 hours. • Multipara: more than 14 hours. • Etiology: unknown. Theory – ectopic initiation of incoordiante uterine ctx. • Assessment: • Onset (early labor)

14. Contractions: • Continuous fundal tension, incomplete relaxation. • Painful. • Ineffectual – no effacement or dilation. • Signs of fetal distress: • Meconium-stained fluid. • FHR irregularities. • Maternal VS. • Emotional status. • Medical evaluation: to rule out CPD. • Vaginal examination, x-ray pelvimetry, ultrasonography.

15. Interventions with Hypertonic Dysfunction: • Short-acting barbiturates (to encourage rest, relaxation). • IV fluids (to restore / maintain hydration & fluid-electrolyte balance). • If CPD – c/s. • Provide emotional support. • Provide comfort measures. • Prevent infection (strict aseptic technique). • Prepare patient for c/s if needed.

16. HYPOTONIC DYSFUNCTION: • After normal labor at onset, ctx diminish in frequency, duration, & strength. • Lowered uterine resting tone; cervical effacement & dilation slow / cease. • Etiology: • Premature or excessive analgesia / anesthesia (epidural, spinal block). • CPD. • Overdistention (hydramnios, fetal macrosomia, multifetal pregnancy). • Fetal malposition / malpresentation. • Maternal fear / anxiety.

17. Assessment: • Onset (latent phase & most common in active phase). • Contractions - normal previously, will demonstrate: • Decreased frequency. • Shorter duration. • Diminished intensity (mild to moderate). • Less uncomfortable. • Cervical changes – slow or cease. • Signs of fetal distress – rare. • Usually late in labor d/t infection secondary to prolonged ROM. • Tachycardia.

18. Maternal VS (elevated temperature) – may indicate infection. • Medical diagnosis – procedures: vaginal examination, x-ray pelvimetry, ultrasonography. To rule out CPD (most common cause). • Management: • Amniotomy (artificial ROM). • Oxytocin augmentation of labor. • If CPD, prepare for c/s. • Emotional support, comfort measures, prevent infection.

19. Precipitate Labor • Labor that progresses rapidly and ends with the delivery occurring less than 3 hours after the onset of uterine activity. • Rapid labor and delivery.

20. Fetal Malpresentation and Malposition • Breech presentation • Shoulder presentation • Face presentation • Malpositions Chapter 26

21. Breech Presentations • Fetal descent in which the fetal buttocks, legs, feet, or combination of these parts is found first in the maternal pelvis. • Labor tends to be longer and more difficult due to a softer presenting part, that does not fill the birth canal completely. • Increase risks for fetal outcome.

22. Shoulder Presentation • Fetal descent in which the shoulder precedes the fetal head in the maternal pelvis alone or along with the ftal arm and hand. • Vaginally undeliverable.

23. Face Presentation • Fetal descent in which hyperextension of the fetal head and neck allows the fetal face to descend into the maternal pelvis, as opposed to flexion that results in fetal vertex presentation. • Brow presentation = occurs when the area between the anterior fontanelle and the fetal eyes descends first.

24. Malpositions • Persistent occipitoposterior position. • Persistent occipitotransverse position. • Result from fetal rotation as the fetus descends through the pelvis. • Possible precipitating factors are macrosomia and pelvic abnormalities. • Results in increased discomfort (particularly back labor), prolonged, abnormal labor, soft tissue injury, lacerations, or an extensive episiotomy incision.

25. Maternal and Fetal Structural Abnormalities • Cephalopelvic disproportion (CPD) • Macrosomia Chapter 26

26. DYSTOCIA: • Difficult labor. • Causes: • “3 Ps” for mother: Psych, Placenta, Position. • “3Ps” for fetus: Power, Passageway, Passenger. • POWER: forces of labor (uterine contractions, use of abdominal muscles). • Premature analgesia / anesthesia. • Uterine overdistension (multifetal pregnancy, fetal macrosomia) • Uterine myomas.

27. PASSAGEWAY: Resistance of cervix, pelvic structures. • Rigid cervix. • Distended bladder. • Distended rectum. • Dimensions of the bony pelvis: oelvic contractures. • PASSENGER: accommodation of the presenting part to pelvic diameters. • Fetal malposition / malpresentation. • Fetal anomalies. • Fetal size.

28. Hazards with Dystocia: • MATERNAL: 1. Fatigue, exhaustion, dehydration. 2. Lowered pain threshold, loss of control. 3. Intrauterine infection. • Uterine rupture. • Cervical, vaginal, perineal lacerations. • Postpartum hemorrhage. • FETAL: • Hypoxia, anoxia, demise. • Intracranial hemorrhage.

29. Placental Abnormalities • Placenta previa • Abruptio placentae • Other placental abnormalities Chapter 26

30. PLACENTA PREVIA • Abnormal placement of placenta so that it partially covers the cervix; dilatation results in bleeding, which can be of hemorrhagic proportions. • The placenta is located over or very near the internal cervical os. • Severe hemorrhage can result from digital palpation of the internal os. • Previa is a serious but uncommon complication, occurring in .3-.5% of pregnancies.

31. Advanced maternal age and multiparity increase the risk. • Painless hemorrhage is symptomatic of previa, often around the end of the 2nd trimester. • Clinical diagnosis is reached through ultrasound examination in which the placenta is localized in relationship to the cervix. • Manual examination is contraindicated! • Management of pregnancy depends on gestational age.

32. PLACENTAL ABRUPTION • Premature separation of the placenta from the uterine wall; usually results in maternal hemorrhage and fetal compromise. • Classified as “partial” or “total”. • “Total Abruption” – fetal death is inevitable. • “Partial Abruption” – the fetus has a chance of survival. • Separation of >50% is incompatible with fetal survival.

33. Grading of Placental Abruptions: • Grade I: Slight vag.bleeding & some uterine irritability. Maternal BP is unaffected & there are normal fibrinogen levels. FHR has a normal pattern. • Grade II: External bleeding is mild to moderate. The uterus is irritable. Tetanic ctx may be present. Maternal BP is maintained. FHR shows signs of distress. Maternal fibrinogen level is decreased.

34. Grade III: The bleeding may be severe & may be concealed in some instances. Uterine ctx are tetanic and painful. Maternal hypotension may be present. The fibrinogen level is greatly decreased & there are coagulation problems. Diagnosis: may be made by ultrasound, but frequently the diagnosis is made and confirmed at delivery, by inspection of the placenta.

35. Umbilical Cord Abnormalities • Velamentous insertion of the cord • Umbilical cord compression • Umbilical cord prolapse Chapter 26

36. Velamentous Insertion of the Cord • Condition where the umbilical cord joins the placenta at the edge, rather than the typical insertion in the center. • Can result in chronic altered fetal perfusion. Can lead to trauma and compression during L&D, resulting in rupture and hemorrhage.

37. PROLAPSED UMBILICAL CORD: • Cord descent in advance of presenting part; compression interrupts blood flow, exchange of fetal / maternal gases. Leads to fetal hypoxia, anoxia, death (if unrelieved). • Etiology: • SROM or AROM. • Excessive force of escaping fluid (hydramnios). • Malposition (breech, compound presentation, transverse lie). • Preterm or SGA fetus – allows space for cord descent.

38. Assessment: • Visualization of cord outside (or inside) vagina. • Palpation of pulsating mass on vaginal exam. • Fetal distress – variable deceleration and persistent bradycardia. • Nursing interventions: • Reduce pressure on cord. • Increase maternal / fetal oxygenation (O2 per mask @ 8-10 liters). • Protect exposed cord (continuous pressure on presenting part to keep pressure off cord).

39. Identify fetal response to these measures, reduce threat to fetal survival: moniotr FHR continuously. • Expedite termination of threat to fetus (prepare for immediate vaginal or c/s). • Support mother and significant other (try to explain things while mobilizing delivery team).

40. Amniotic Fluid Abnormalities • Polyhydramnios • Oligohydramnios • Amniotic fluid embolism Chapter 26

41. Summary of Danger Signs During Labor: • Contractions: strong, every 2 min. or less, lasting 90 sec. or more; poor relaxation between ctx. • Sudden sharp abdominal pain followed by boardlike abdomen and shock (abruptio placenta or uterine rupture). • Marked vaginal bleeding. • FHR periodic pattern decelerations – late; variable; absent.

42. Baseline FHR: • Bradycardia (<100 bpm) • Tachycardia (>160 bpm) • Amniotic fluid: • Amount: excessive; diminished. • Odor • Color: meconium stained or particulate; port-wine; yellow. • 24 hr or more since ROM. • Maternal hypotension.

43. POSTPARTUM COMPLICATIONS Chapter 37

44. Postpartum Hemorrhage: • Definition: • More than 500cc of blood loss after vaginal birth. • More than 1000cc of blood loss after C/S. • Blood loss is often underestimated by up to 50% (ACOG, 1998). Subjective. • #1 cause of PP Hemorrhage = Uterine Atony.

45. Risk Factors for PP Hemorrhage: • Uterine Atony: Marked hypotonia of the uterus • Overdistended uterus • Anesthesia and analgesia • Previous history of uterine atony • High parity • Prolonged labor, oxytocin-induced labor • Trauma during labor and birth

46. Risk Factors for PP Hemorrhage: • Lacerations of the birth canal • Retained placental fragments • Ruptured uterus • Inversion of the uterus • Placenta accreta • Coagulation disorders • Placental abruption

47. Risk Factors for PP Hemorrhage: • Placenta previa • Manual removal of a retained placenta • Magnesium sulfate administration during labor or postpartum period • Endometritis • Uterine subinvolution

48. Lacerations: • Cervix, vagina, perineum. • Suspected when bleeding continues despite a firm, contracted uterine fundus. • Characteristics: bleeding can be a slow trickle, an oozing, or frank hemorrhage. • Influencing factors: structural, maternal, fetal • Lacerations = the most common cause of injuries in the lower portion of the genital tract.

49. Retained Placenta: Causes: • Partial separation of normal placenta • Entrapment of the partially or completely separated placenta by uterine constriction ring • Mismanagement of the 3rd stage of labor • Abnormal adherence of the entire placenta or a portion of placenta to the uterine wall Types: • Nonadherent retained placenta • Adherent retained placenta

50. Inversion of the Uterus • Rare, but life threatening. (1 in 2000-2500 births). May recur with additional births. • Contributing factors: • Fundal implantation of placenta • Vigorous fundal pressure • Excessive traction applied to cord • Uterine atony • Leiomyomas • Abnormally adherent placental tissue