Argument: Ethos and Logos

1. Argument: Ethos and Logos Notes from Elements of Argument by Annette T. Rottenberg

2. The Audience • An argument is an implicit dialogue or exchange between a “speaker” and his audience • Give an example of a situation where a writer knows specific information about their audience

3. Some Questions to Askwhen considering your audience • Why has the audience requested this report? What do they expect to get from it? • How much do they already know about the subject? • Are they divided or agreed on the subject? • What is their emotional involvement with the issue?

4. Establishing Credibility • Credibility is the most important element of the argument!! (ethos) • To establish credibility, an author must: 1. Convince the audience he is knowledgeable 2. Convince the audience he is truthful and moral 3. Convince the audience he has considered the interests and needs of others In general, that he’s of good INTELLIGENCE, CHARACTER, and GOODWILL!

5. Important to Note: Purposely encouraging another person to make a decision on the basis of incomplete or dishonestly used data is PROFOUNDLY UNETHICAL A good arguer may be able to get away with it, but it’s still wrong!

6. So how do I acquire credibility? • Submit evidence of careful, thorough research • Adopt a “thoughtful and judicious” tone (pgs. 16-17 for examples) • Produce a clean, literate, well-organized paper…. In other words, make it professional!

7. Moving on… Claims and Support (the logos of an argument)

8. Claims of Fact • Not all facts are up for argument! Ex? • Qualifiers help us acknowledge that claims are not often “black and white” • For a claim of fact, ask 3 questions:

9. What are sufficient and appropriate data? • Facts, testimony, concrete examples • The more controversial your topic, the more facts and testimony you will need to supply • Also, are they accurate? Do you have enough data to make your claim, or are you basing your argument on one or two pieces of support evidence? Do you have more than one authority? Are your authorities good and varied enough?

10. Who are the reliable authorities? • Not all “authorities” are in fact experts, or may be biased • Guidelines for determining authorities’ reliability: 1. rank or title 2. publications 3. acceptance by others in the field 4. association with universities, etc. (this is why it’s always important to use tags when inserting your sources… the audience needs to know why this guy’s opinion is any good!)

11. Have I made clear whether my statements are facts or inferences? • Facts can be verified • Inference is “a statement about the unknown on the basis of the known.” • In other words, an interpretation or opinion reached after an informed evaluation • Inferences, by definition, only suggest probability… most arguments are reliant upon inferences to make their claim… (pg. 51 for examples)

12. How to Defend a Claim of Fact • Clearly state your claim at the beginning (thesis) • Define controversial or ambiguous terms • Make sure evidence is appropriate, sufficient and accurate • Distinguish between inferences and facts • Arrange your evidence according to importance (first and last things get remembered!)

13. THE END