ARGUMENT Definition

1. ARGUMENTDefinition • Is not always a shouting match, as many people think but is based on reason and logic • Is an appeal to the readers’ intellect • Issues are complex and debatable • Is a path of reasoning aimed at discovering the truth or falsehood of an issue under debate

2. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONImportant Points • Both are used together but they are not the same thing. • Both are often blended. • Persuasion is a purpose for writing. • Argument is an appeal to the readers’ intellect.

3. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONReasons to Persuade 1. To promote change. Example: To have computers in every classroom at Southeast College. 2. To oppose a theory. Example: Writing a history paper, claiming that antislavery sentiment was not the cause of the Civil War.

4. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONReasons to Persuade 3. To arouse sympathy. Example: Passing more stringent laws against people who abuse animals or for those who drive while under the influence of alcohol. 4. To stimulate interest. Example: Soliciting administrators and faculty to implement a new course, such as Women’s African-American Studies.

5. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONReasons to Persuade 5. To promote change Example: To appeal to apartment owners to provide more lighting or on-site security or security gates for tenants’ safety. 6. To provoke anger Example: To arouse outrage against a proposed tax hike or to get a petition to abolish new legislation.

6. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONReasons to Persuade 7. To support a cause. Example: To urge people to contribute to different charity relief or fundraisers. 8. To urge people to take action. Example: To get people to vote in an upcoming election; to get people involved in their local civic associations; to urge people to write their elected officials to get legislation passed or repealed.

7. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONReasons to Persuade 9. To organize a public protest, using signs and banners, where citizens censure legislation. 10. To urge citizens to attend Town Hall meetings in designated areas in Houston for a progress report on the many activities of our legislators and the laws that passed or failed.

8. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONReasons to Persuade 11. To ask for a raise in salary. 12. To pay a bonus to employees who have perfect attendance for a year as an incentive not to miss work or to contribute ideas that may save a company time or money, thereby improving efficiency.

9. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONObstacles • World events • Media “brainwashing” • Family influences • Fear of rejection by our peers • Being told our views are wrong, bad, or immoral by so-called “experts.”

10. PERSUASIONDefinition and Test for Success Definition: To convince a person to think, act, or behave in a certain way. Test for success: If a person has changed his/ her views, actions, or behavior in favor of the speaker or writer, then he/she has been persuaded. Important: Even if a reader’s view has not been changed, he/she may agree with the evidence but not the conclusion.

11. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONAppeals • Logical • Ethical • Emotional

12. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONDefinition of Appeals Logical – based on facts, statistics, reasons Example: A lawyer who is arguing a case relies on a variety of evidence: eyewitness testimony, experts, DNA, visuals (charts, graphs, photos), reenactments, audio tapes, and arguing from precedent.

13. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONDefinition of Appeals Ethical – comes from the writer’s character • Depends on one’s ability to convince readers of his/her intelligence, commitment, and knowledge of the issues. • Shows that a writer respects the readers’ point of view. • Shows that a writer has done his/her homework. • Claims are not exaggerated or excessive.

14. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONDefinition of Appeals Emotional – A message that appeals to the senses and personal biases and prejudices of the reader. Uses connotative language (words that elicit certain feelings when a word is heard). Example: “Corporate athleticism,” or increasing profits, describes the business-minded attitude that the NFL uses today. Question: What tone does the writer have about the NFL?

15. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONElements Most Likely to Convince Readers • The writer’s competence • Quality of the reasoning (sound logic and reasonable facts) • The degree to which writers appeal to the readers’ self-interests (benefit to readers)

16. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONTypes of Reasoning Deductive – direct method (Hint: (remember two d’s) • Moves from a broad generalization (thesis) to specifics (examples, reasons, evidence). • A conclusion follows from a set of assertions or premises. • If the premises are true, then so is the conclusion. • To challenge an argument, a reader has to evaluate the premises.

17. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONTypes of Reasoning Inductive – indirect method (Hint: Remember two i’s. • Does not prove an argument is true. • Convinces readers the argument is probable. • Presents evidence logically by moving through an assortment of data, which leads to a conclusion. • Used most often by lawyers, scientists, detectives, and mystery writers.

18. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONAssessing Evidence in Inductive Argument • Is it accurate? The facts must be correct. • Is it relevant? The evidence must be connected to the point being made. • Is it representative? The conclusion must be supported by evidence gathered from a sample that accurately reflects the larger population. • Is it sufficient? There must be enough evidence to satisfy skeptical readers.

19. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONToulmin Method of Analyzing Arguments Based on three facets: • Claim – a point or a thesis; an assertion about a topic. • Grounds – reasons and evidence (facts, statistics, anecdotes, and expert opinion). • Warrants – assumptions or principles that link the grounds to the claims.

20. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONToulmin Method of Analyzing an Argument • Statement: The death penalty should be abolished because if it is allowed, innocent people could be executed. Part 1 – The independent clause is the thesis. Part 2 – The dependent clause presents grounds for the claims. (1) It is wrong to execute innocent people and (2) it is impossible to be completely sure of a person’s innocence or guilt.

21. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONTypes of Evidence for Claims Using similes, metaphors, and imagery Examples: “Our response to sexual predators must balance the extent and intensity of the possible behavior with the probability of its occurrence. An ex-prisoner likely to expose himself on a crowded subway may be a risk we are willing to assume. However, a prisoner with even a moderate probability of sexual torture and murder is not. Such violence is like a rock dropped into a calm pool—the concentric circles spread even after the rock has sunk (a simile and imagery).” Source: “Sex Predators Can’t Be Saved” – Andrew Vachss

22. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONTypes of Evidence for Claims Facts and statistics • Can be convincing. • Opponents can interpret same facts and statistics differently. • Opponents may also cite different facts and statistics to prove their claims.

23. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONTypes of Evidence for Claims Expert opinion – The views of authorities in a given field is powerful evidence for a claim. However, the expert must have the proper credentials on the issue. Example: According to Carl Blyth, an expert on football safety, the head coach ‘s attitude and leadership are the most important factors in creating the balance to win with the safety of the players.

24. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONTypes of Evidence for Claims Anecdotes – brief narratives used as illustrations to support a claim. Example: court cases • Stories appeal to our emotions and intellect. • Narratives can be very effective in making an argument because they personalize an experience.

25. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONTitles • A title is compelling. • A title is usually a fragment. • A title suggests the subject matter. • A title may consist of a subtitle followed by a major title. Example: Affirmative Action: Leveling the Playing Field for Minorities or Using Quotas to Fill Colleges and Jobs?

26. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONPresenting Evidence • For a supportive audience: Place the evidence from the most important to the least important. • For a hostile audience – Place the evidence from the least important to the most important. In other words, save your most compelling evidence toward the end of the essay.

27. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONFallacy Definition: Mistakes in logic; faulty reasoning used to reach a conclusion. Results of using a fallacy – Unclear thinking; unclear logic; deceiving readers.

28. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONCommon Logical Fallacies False authority – presenting testimony of an unqualified person to support a claim. Example: “As the actor who plays Dr. Fine on Emergency Room, I recommend this weight-loss drug because … “ [Is an actor qualified to judge the benefits and dangers of a diet drug?]

29. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONStrategies Refutation – using contradictory evidence to show that a position is false or exposing inadequate reasoning to show that a position cannot be true. Defenses – clarifying a position; presenting new arguments to support a position; showing that criticisms of a position are unreasonable or unconvincing.

30. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONHow to Avoid a Fallacy • Use enough examples to support an assertion. • Qualify a broad statement about a group of people or things. Example: Use words like some, most, a few, many, or a majority. • Cite examples that prove your assertion.

31. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONCommon Logical Fallacies Non sequitur – a conclusion that does not logically follow from evidence presented or one based on irrelevant evidence. Example: Students who default on their loans are irresponsible people. (Students who default have reasons for their non payment). We cannot conclude they are irresponsible without modifying the statement.

32. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONCommon Logical Fallacies Hasty generalization – a form of improper induction that draws a conclusion based on insufficient evidence. Example 1: No one can logically conclude that one bad grade on an assignment is indicative that a student will fail a course or that a few bad teachers add up to a bad school.

33. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONCommon Logical Fallacies Example 2: Temperatures across the United States last year exceeded the fifty- year average by two degrees, thus proving that global warming is a reality. [Is this evidence enough to prove this broad conclusion?]

34. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONCommon Logical Fallacies Sweeping Generalization – a statement that cannot adequately be supported no matter how much evidence is supplied. Example: Everyone should exercise. Most people would agree, but not all people can exercise. Those who are bedridden or wheelchair bound cannot exercise their body, but they can exercise their mind. Note: Be careful not to use absolutes because they allow for NO exceptions!

35. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONcommon Logical Fallacies Guilt by association – discrediting a person because of problems with one’s associates. Example: Martin’s friend is an ex-felon, so Martin’s character is questionable. (Why should Martin’s character be in question because of his friend’s past mistakes with the law?)

36. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONCommon Logical Fallacies Stacking the deck – slanting evidence to support a position. Example: Nine out of ten doctors have endorsed this product, so it is guaranteed to work. On the surface, this statement sounds convincing. [However, which doctors were interviewed? Were they all hired by the company that makes the product?}

37. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONCommon Logical Fallacies False authority – presenting testimony of an unqualified person to support a claim. Example: As the actor who plays Dr. Fine on Emergency Room, I recommend this weight-loss drug because … “{Is an actor qualified to judge the benefits and dangers of a diet drug?]

38. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONCommon Logical Fallacies False analogy – a comparison in which a surface similarity hides a significant difference. Example: Governments and businesses both work within a budget to accomplish their goals. Just as businesses must focus on the “bottom line,” so should government. [Is the goal of government to make a profit or does it have more important goals?]

39. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONCommon Logical Fallacies Red herring – an argument that diverts attention from the true issues by concentrating on something irrelevant. Example: Hemingway’s book Death in the Afternoon is unsuccessful because it glorifies the brutal sport of bullfighting. [Why can’t a book about a brutal sport be successful? The statement is irrelevant.]

40. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONCommon Logical Fallacies Begging the question – circular reasoning that assumes the truth of a questionable opinion. Example: The president’s poor relationship with the military has weakened the armed forces. [Does the president have a poor relationship? If so, is it the only reason for this so-called “weakened” relationship?]

41. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONCommon Logical Fallacies Bandwagon – an argument that depends on going along with the crowd on the false assumption that truth is based on a “popular” view. Example – Everybody knows that Hemingway is preoccupied with the theme of death in his novels. [Everybody implies there are no exceptions or exclusions.] Is this statement too strong? Does it need to be modified? If so, what are possible revisions?

42. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONCommon Logical Fallacies Ad hominem – a personal attack on someone who disagrees with you rather than on the person’s argument. Example: The district attorney is a lazy political hack, so naturally she opposes streamlining the court system. [Even if she usually support her party’s position, is she automatically wrong to oppose this issue?

43. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONCommon Logical Fallacies Circular reasoning – an argument that restates the point rather than supporting it with evidence. Example: The wealthy should pay more taxes because taxes should be higher for people with higher incomes. [Why should wealthy people pay more taxes? The rest of the statement does not answer this question—it merely restates the position.]

44. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONCommon Logical Fallacies Either/or fallacy – The idea that a complicated issue can be resolved by resorting to one of only two options when in reality, there are additional issues to consider. Example: Either the state legislature will raise taxes or our state’s economy will deteriorate. [Is raising taxes the only way to avoid a state deficit?]

45. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONCommon Logical Fallacies Equivocation – when the meaning of a key word or phrase shifts during an argument. Example: It is not in the public interest for the public to lose interest in politics. Although clever, the shift in meaning of the term public interest clouds an important issue: we need to VOTE and support the candidates whom we believe are the most qualified and will act in our behalf.

46. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONExample of a Fallacy Major premise – All embezzlers are criminals. Minor premise - All embezzlers are people. Conclusion – Therefore, all people are embezzlers. [Is this true?] If not, how should the conclusion be stated?

47. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONLearning How to Argue 1. Figure out what the issue is. People argue about issues, not topics. You may want to turn your topic into a problem by asking questions about it. Does something indicate that all is not the way it should be? If so, have they changed for the worse? From what perspectives—economic, social, political, cultural, medical, or geographic can the argument be made?

48. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONLearning How to Argue 2. Develop a reasonable position that negotiates differences. As a writer you want readers to trust your judgment. Conducting research will make you informed; reading other people’s views and thinking critically about them will enhance the quality and scope of your argument.

49. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONLearning How to Argue • Find out what others have to say about the issue; negotiate the differences between your position and theirs. • Pay attention to your areas of disagreement but acknowledge areas of agreement as well.

50. ARGUMENT/PERSUASIONLearning How to Argue • Always remember that two views on the same issue can be similar but not identical or different but not completely opposite. • Avoid language that may promote prejudice or fear. • Furthermore, avoid misrepresentations of others, ideas, and personal attacks on someone’s character.