Crisis, Resurgence, and the Millennium

Crisis, Resurgence, and the Millennium Learning U.S. History Via the Presidencies

ASSIGNMENT:Use the following power point to complete the Presidential comparison charts regarding domestic and foreign policy

THE NIXON PRESIDENCY (1969-1974) • Sometimes known as the “Imperial Presidency” since the expansion of Presidential power reached its peak • Failed to consult Congress about bombing Cambodia & Laos and mining North Vietnam’s harbor • Used public funds to remodel private homes • Used the CIA and FBI to get info about political enemies • Refused to spend funds if Congress voted for programs he did not like

Nixon’s Domestic Policy • Eliminated several Great Society programs • Sought to end the draft, create strong anticrime laws, and advance environmental programs • Created the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA-sets & monitors air and water pollution standards) and the Endangered Species Act (requires Fish & Wildlife Service to list species of endangered plants and animals)

Nixon’s Foreign Policy • Withdrew troops from Vietnam, but increased bombing raids and financial aid to S. Vietnam • With the help of Henry Kissinger (Sec. of State), he had 2 great foreign policy successes • Re-opening of relations with China (1972) – wanted a more flexible situation in Asia in order to put pressure on N. Vietnam. Although strongly anti-Communist, Nixon became the 1st American President to visit mainland China

Nixon’s Foreign Policy Continued… • Détente with the Soviet Union (1972) – believed in pursuing a policy of detente (a relaxing of tensions) and introduced the policy to the Soviet Union • He and Kissinger wanted to halt the build-up of nuclear weapons • Became the 1st President to visit Moscow where he signed the SALT treaty limiting defensive missile systems • Also agreed to sell American grain the Soviets to help with food shortages • Worked together to pressure Israel and Arab states to come to a cease-fire when war broke out in 1973

Corruption in Nixon’s Presidency • New Vice President • Vice President Spiro Agnew resigned when it was discovered that he had taken bribes while Governor of Maryland • Under the Twenty-fifth Amendment, Nixon appointed Gerald Ford as his new Vice-President • Watergate Crisis (1972) • A group of former CIA agents, working for Nixon’s re-election as President, were caught breaking into Democratic Party headquarters at the Watergate complex in Washington, D.C.

More About Watergate • The Cover-up • Nixon tried to cover up an investigation into the break-in claiming it involved national security • Investigative reporters reported the link to the White House, the Senate appointed a committee to investigate, and the Attorney General appointed a Special Prosecutor to examine any wrongdoing

Even More About Watergate • The Tapes • Nixon had secretly recorded all of his own White House Conversations • Nixon claimed executive privilege and refused to release the tapes to the Senate Committee • U.S. v. Nixon (1974) – Nixon contended that being forced by a court to turn over tapes would lead to judicial control of the Presidency, but the Supreme Court ruled that he must turn over the tapes. This reaffirmed the principle that no one is above the law • Nixon Resigned when the tapes revealed that he was involved in the cover up to avoid impeachment

THE FORD PRESIDENCY (1974-1977) • Gerald Ford had not even been elected as Vice-President but had been appointed by Nixon when Agnew resigned • One of his first acts as President was to pardon Nixon for any crimes he had committed • This decision came under heavy public criticism

Ford’s Domestic Policy • Economic problems plagued his administration • Stagflation: high unemployment combined with inflation (this was contrary to what most economists believed – inflation only accompanied economic growth and full employment) • OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) was formed in 1960. In 1973, the Arab nations of OPEC used oil as a political weapon by imposing an oil embargo. High costs for energy had a significant impact on the American economy

Ford’s Foreign Policy • The Helsinki Accords – an international agreement between the U.S., Canada, the Soviet Union, and most European countries recognizing post WWII borders and promising respect for human rights • Showed his continuation of Nixon’s policy of détente with the Soviet Union

THE CARTER PRESIDENCY (1977-1981) • Since many Americans continued to blame Republicans for the Watergate scandal, Jimmy Carter (former Governor of Georgia) was elected President in the 1976 election • He was a democrat who ran as an “outsider” promising to end corruption and “clean up” Washington

Carter’s Domestic Policy • Energy Crisis – created the Department of Energy & increased the oil in the nation’s “Strategic Petroleum Reserve” • Stagflation – inflation & interest rates soared in 1979. Carter cut federal spending but inflation did not come down until 2 years later • Community Reinvestment Act – required banks to make credit available to poor communities

Carter’s Domestic Policy continued… • The environment – provided funds to clean up toxic waste & created the Nuclear Regulatory Commission to develop stricter standards for the peaceful use of nuclear energy • Diversity – appointed women and minority members to government posts & sponsored a bill requiring public schools to provide instruction in their native language while trying to learn English

Carter’s Foreign Policy • Made human rights a priority, condemned apartheid in South Africa, pressured Soviet Union to allow Jews to emigrate, and cut aid to dictatorships that violated human rights • Panama Canal Treaty, 1977 – signed a treaty returning control of all of the Canal Zone, except for the canal itself, to Panama and agreed to turn over the canal to Panama by 2000

Carter’s Foreign Policy continued… • Camp David Accords, 1977 – invited Anwar Sadat, President of Egypt, and Menachem Begin, the Prime Minister of Israel, to the Presidential retreat at Camp David in Maryland. The goal was to reach a peace settlement between the two countries that had been at war periodically since 1948. Sadat and Begin won the Nobel Peace Prize, but many Arab leaders denounced the agreement.

More of Carter’s Foreign Policy Continued • U.S. Soviet Relations – When the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979, Carter halted grain sales to the Soviets, boycotted the 1980 Olympics in Moscow, and postponed ratification of a new arms agreement (SALT II) • Iranian Hostage Crisis – When the Shah of Iran fled the country during a revolution in 1979, Ayatollah Khomeini representing Shiite Muslims took control. Iranian students seized the staff of the U.S. embassy in Tehran and held them hostage for more than a year. Carter was unable to secure their release.

Short-cycle assessment: • Rank Presidents Nixon, Ford, and Carter in order of who you think had the most effective Presidency to the least effective (1 is the highest and 3 the lowest). Give at least 2 reasons for placing each choice in its order.

THE NEW CONSERVATISM THE REAGAN AND BUSH PRESIDENCIES

The Reagan Presidency (1981-1989) • Was a popular Hollywood actor in the years after WWII • Was president of the actors’ union before entering politics • Originally a Democrat, he grew more conservative over time • Was Governor of California in the 1960s • With running mate George H.W. Bush, won the Presidential election in 1980

Reagan’s Domestic Policy • Projected a confident, optimistic outlook • Introduced far-reaching changes to bring prosperity to many, although not to all Americans • Reversed the trend of increased federal control over businesses that had begun in the Progressive Era (he believed that individuals and businesses were better able to solve their own economic problems than gov’t. agencies)

Reagan’s Domestic Policy continued… • Reaganomics – tax cuts, reduced federal welfare programs, deregulation of businesses, increased military spending • The Federal Deficit/National Debt – promised government spending would not exceed amount of taxes raised, but increased military spending actually doubled the national debt • Trade Imbalance – Americans bought more overseas goods than they sold. This trade imbalance led to the loss of millions of jobs and the closing of steel mills and auto plants

Reagan’s Domestic Policy continued… • Immigration Policy – The Mazzoli-Simpson Act (1986) “legalized” illegal aliens who had lived continuously in the U.S. since 1981 • Supreme Court – Reagan nominated Sandra Day O’Connor in 1981 as the first woman Justice on the U.S. Supreme Court. In her early days on the court she was a conservative, but in the 1990s became a swing vote between liberal and conservative groups on the court.

Reagan’s Foreign Policy • Set out to rebuild American confidence in the aftermath of Vietnam, Watergate, and the Iran Hostage Crisis • Believed the U.S. had to continue to act as the world’s main defender of freedom and democracy • The Iranian hostages were released the day he took office

Reagan’s Foreign Policy continued… • The Reagan Doctrine – stated that the U.S. would not simply confine itself to the containment of Communism. It would also attempt to “roll-back” Communism by aiding anti-Communist “freedom fighters” in Afghanistan, Angola, Nicaragua, and Cambodia (He had set the precedent by sending troops to Granada after Communists had taken control).

Reagan’s Foreign Policy continued… • Believed in a policy of Peace through Strength (the best way to prevent war was for our enemies to think we had both the will and means to stop aggression) • Proposed research into anti-ballistic defense system and the Strategic Defense Initiative (Star Wars) • The War on Terrorism – no negotiation with terrorists and would retaliate against those harboring terrorists

Reagan’s Foreign Policy continued… • The Iran-Contra Affair – arose from a secret foreign policy operation in which the U.S. sold arms to Iran as part of a deal in exchange for the release of American hostages in Lebanon. Iran then diverted the arms to “Contra” rebels fighting communism in Nicaragua. This deal tarnished America’s credibility in the world • Beginning of the end of the Cold War – reforms in the Soviet Union, dismantling of thousands of nuclear weapons, overthrow of dictatorships and military governments in Latin America and the Philippines.

THE GEORGE H.W. BUSH PRESIDENCY (1989-1993) • Had served 2 terms as Reagan’s Vice President • Promised to continue Reagan’s policies, but with greater compassion for homeless and poor • Also promised to improve education and fight drug use

Bush’s Domestic Policy • Greatest challenge was to reduce the growing budget deficit • Was able to cut military spending due to changes in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union • Agreed to raise income taxes on the wealthy but was never able to make significant budget reductions

Bush’s Domestic Policy continued… • Supreme Court Appointments – appointed several to the Supreme Court leading to a conservative majority. It toughened rules for criminal defendants, reduced the scope of abortion rights, and introduced important topics • The Recession – The U.S. gradually moved back into a recession by 1990. Blamed on reduced spending. Foreign competition led to less demand for some American products leading to lay-offs in key industries (steel, auto, etc.)

Bush’s Domestic Policy continued… • Civil Rights and Unrest – Recession was especially hard on young African Americans. Riots erupted in Los Angeles and other cities. • Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 – prohibited discrimination against people with disabilities in employment and public accommodations. Guaranteed equal treatment and handicap accessibility

Bush’s Foreign Policy • Invasion of Panama, 1989 – Sent U.S. forces to Panama where they captured Panamanian dictator and drug-dealer Manuel Noriega and restored democratically elected leaders. Noriega was taken to the U.S. where he was tried and convicted on drug charges. • End of the Cold War, 1989-1991 – Eastern Europe moved from Communism to democracy, the Berlin Wall was torn down, and Germany reunited. The Soviet Union dissolved in 1991. Russia and the other independent republics were recognized by Bush and offered economic assistance.

Bush’s Foreign Policy continued… • The Gulf War, 1990 – Bush’s greatest single foreign policy success. Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait, capturing vast oil wealth and extending Iraq’s border. When he refused U.N. requests to withdraw, forces under the leadership of the U.S. launched an attack. In just a few days, Hussein agreed to remove Iraqi troops and pay Kuwait for damages. Bush refused to go further by removing Hussein from power, but American power was increased in the Middle East.

Bush’s Foreign Policy continued… • Somalia – In 1992, President Bush began a humanitarian airlift of food and supplies to Somalia in northeast Africa. Millions of people faced starvation as a result of war. When local warlords and bandits continued to steal and threaten food shipments, Bush sent in U.S. troops.

THE CLINTON PRESIDENCY (1993-2001) • Came from a poor Arkansas background, but studied as a Rhodes scholar in England and attended Yale University, where he met his wife Hilary • Was able to unite different groups within the Democratic Party as well as many independent voters • A contributing factor to his success was the weakening of Bush’s authority by third-party candidate, Ross Perot. Perot gained 20% of the vote, making him one of the most successful third-party candidates in history.

Clinton’s Domestic Policy • Promised ambitious reforms, but had difficulty getting Congressional support • He limited federal spending, increased taxes for 40% of the richest Americans, and cut taxes for low-income families • He promised guaranteed health insurance and appointed his wife to head a task force on health care but was unable to get a bill passed through Congress

Clinton’s Domestic Policy continued… • As a “New Democrat”, he supported welfare reform, free trade, lower taxes on the middle class, and tough measures on crime • His relaxing restrictions on exports (especially high tech good) helped restore the economy, and thanks to a reduction in military spending with the end of the Cold War, the economy was thriving. • He was able to balance the nation’s budget, unemployment was down, consumer spending was up, and business profits were at an all time high

Impeachment and Scandal • In his second term in office, Clinton became the subject of a major scandal and was brought before the Senate for an impeachment trial. • It was found that he had lied under oath about a sexual affair with a White House intern. • The House of Representatives voted to impeach, but the Senate failed to reach a 2/3 majority to remove the President from office. • Once again, Americans felt they could not trust their elected leaders.

Clinton’s Foreign Policy • Though he had little experience in foreign policy, some of his greatest successes were in that area • The Balkans (Yugoslavia, Bosnia, Kosovo) – The end of the Cold War caused renewed ethnic tensions in Bosnia & Serbia, which had been part of Yugoslavia. Serbs attempted genocide against Muslims living in Bosnia and Kosovo. • Clinton helped negotiate peace there and afterwards, used NATO air strikes against Serbia. This eventually led to a compromise peace.

Clinton’s Foreign Policy continued… • Pushed for NAFTA (North Atlantic Free Trade Agreement), which had originally been negotiated by Bush. • Free trade between Canada, U.S., and Mexico • Gradually phases out tariffs between them • China – though Clinton pressed China for human rights reform, he separated this demand from trade issues. • A U.S. missile accidentally struck the Chinese embassy in Yugoslavia, which strained relations • U.S trade with China continued and we even helped China join the World Trade Organization

Short-cycle assessment: • Rank Presidents Reagan, G.H.W. Bush, and Clinton in order of who you think had the most effective Presidency to the least effective (1 is the highest and 3 the lowest). Give at least 2 reasons for placing each choice in its order.

THE GEORGE W. BUSH PRESIDENCY (2001-2009) • Son of former President George H.W. Bush (Governor of Texas) became President after winning a majority of the Electoral College in the closest Presidential election in U.S. history • He defeated Al Gore, Clinton’s Vice President, who had won the popular vote

Bush’s Domestic Policy • Pushed through a tax cut to attempt to revitalize the economy • Promoted education reform and introduced the No Child Left Behind Act requiring states to test all students in English and math • Had to take measures to deal with a financial crisis at the end of his second term

Bush’s Foreign Policy • Much was dictated by terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001 at the World Trade Center in New York and the Pentagon in Washington, D.C. • Bush declared a global “War on Terror” against nations that harbored terrorists. • Ordered air and ground assaults which toppled the Taliban and destroyed al-Qaeda’s bases • Created Transportation Security Agency (TSA), Dept. of Homeland Security, & USA PATRIOT Act

Bush Foreign Policy continued… • War in Iraq – feared that Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein might provide biological, chemical, or possible nuclear weapons to terrorists • Hussein refused to allow U.N. inspectors in to search for weapons • Bush gave him an ultimatum to leave the country or face invasion • U.S. & U.N. Forces invaded in April 2003 • Hussein was eventually captured and tried for his crimes

THE OBAMA PRESIDENCY (2009 – PRESENT) • Won one of the hardest fought elections in U.S. history • Defeated Hillary Clinton to win the Democratic nomination then beat John McCain in the election for President • Received a tremendous boost when Oprah Winfrey publicly endorsed him (she was a self-made superstar who appealed to women and African American voters)

Importance of the 2008 election • First African American President (son of a Kenyan father and white American mother) • Campaigned on a promise of change • Longest Presidential campaign in U.S. history • Rapid rise in politics from a position of obscurity just a few years before • Used the Internet to gather support and campaign contributions

Obama’s Domestic Policy • Response to financial crisis • American Recovery and Reinvestment Act: purpose was to jumpstart the economy • More than $700 billion was spend in government bailouts designed to create new jobs, save existing ones, spur the economy, and invest in long-term infrastructure development • Regulated credit cards, lending and banking practices • Passed a controversial health care reform act

Obama’s Domestic Policy Continued… • Appointed Sonia Sotomayor to the Supreme Court • First Hispanic Justice • third woman to serve on the U.S. Supreme court

Crisis, Resurgence, and the Millennium