Some problems of Dynastic System

1. Some problems of Dynastic System A single family ruled Powerful and Great families became imperial affines through marrying their sons or daughters to emperors, princes, and princesses, and held important posts Eunuchs could become powerful enough to interfere with state affairs or actually ruled Empress dowager held regency during the reign of an underage emperor, often causing political turmoil Fratricide occurred because of the absence of primogeniture system when the emperor had many

2. Multi-state and Multiculture • Multi-state system repeatedly appeared in Chinese history. • Pre-Qin (before 221 BCE) • The Spring and Autumn Period (770-476 BCE) • The Warring States Period (453-221 BCE) • Post-Han (After 190AD or 220AD) • The Three Kingdoms Period (-- 265AD) • The Northern [Sixteen Kingdoms] and Southern Dynasties Period (317AD-589AD) • Post-Tang (After 906AD) • The Five Dynasties [and Ten-Kingdoms] Period (--960)

3. Features of early multi-state system • Founder of a state was a charismatic military strongman • The fate of the state often depended on the life span of the founder • Conflict of interest led to political struggles between powerful landed families and military men, causing a tug of war and the change of political leadership of the state • A new charismatic leader would eventually rise to end the multi-state system and reunify China

4. Multi-state system emerged after the collapse of Han • Reasons for the collapse other than the corrupt government: • rising population, increasing land concentration, powerful families grew more and more powerful; famine, floods, and high taxes resulted in peasants’ revolt, bandits became rampant, … • Armed and organized rebellion appeared; its leaders promised the coming of the “great peace” after overthrowing the ruling house.

5. Rise of the great families resulted in a long period of aristocracy before and after the fall of the Han. • Members of wealthy, aristocratic families continued to hold high offices through “recommendation system” that valued one’s pedigree, family wealth, and prestige, rather than one’s ability. • They formed powerful and rival groups in outer court, often confronting or collaborating with eunuchs and imperial affines that dominated inner court. • Factionalism became a political reality

6. High officials at court and landed elite engaged in campaigns against eunuchs and corrupt officials • “pure critique” (qingyi) movement emerged • Self-conscious scholars from powerless elite advocating Confucian values tried to redefine their role by calling their loose organization • “pure stream” (qingliu) • The group made itself distinct and ushered in a new era of intellectualism • Members of the group arrogated to themselves the right to criticize ruling elite

7. Multi-state system: the Three Kingdoms • Warlordism amidst the fall of the Han divided China and formed the Three Kingdoms that fought to reunify China. The Three Kingdoms: 220 A.D.-265 A.D.

8. The Three Kingdoms • Wei: Cao Cao • Shu: Liu Bei • Wu: Sun Quan

9. China Now and China in the Period of the Three Kingdoms

10. Reunification of China • The three kingdoms ended in 265 AD, leading up the reunification of China in 280 by the Sima family, who established the short-lived Western Jin Dynasty • The Western Jin collapsed soon as a result of internal political struggle and foreign invasion. The Sima family moved thecapital to Jiankang (Nanjing) in 317 AD • China was divided into north and south—the beginning of the Northern and Southern Dynasties • Eastern Jin ruled south • Nomads ruled north

11. Cao Cao and His Legacy • Cao Cao prepared his son Cao Pi to become the ruler (emperor) of the Wei, ruling north China in 220 AD, marking the end of the Han • The Cao family ruled the north until 265 AD, when the Sima family formally established the Jin Dynasty and unified China in 280 AD. • The Jin remained adherent to much of Cao Cao’s legacy • The most important of Cao Cao’s legacy: The Nine Rank Method for Designating Men to Office, and military dynasticism

12. Mask representing Cao Cao in Beijing Opera

13. The Nine-Rank System • Initiated by Cao Cao • Official bureaucracy was divided into nine ranks, with the rank one highest and rank nine lowest • Trusted and impartial judges selected by court and sent to their home commanderies to recruit candidates for offices • They reviewed the dossiers of recommended candidates, interviewed them, and graded them

14. Candidates received higher grades were recommended to the central government, where there were made entry-level court appointments by the Personnel Board of the Secretariat • The system became officials’ ranking system, which was to last for many centuries

15. Under Cao Cao’s rule, early phase of the system stressed the recruitment of talented men, irrespective of their moral traits • Filial piety, uprightness, or incorruptibility were not concerned • “inhumane and unfilial” men were welcomed, as long as they possessed the arts of ordering a state or they were capable of using the military.

16. Military Dynasticism • Definition: ruler of the dynasty possesses military power derived from hereditary soldiery and substantial state-owned lands worked by tax-paying tenants. • In Cao Cao’s (Wei) case, hereditary soldiery came from military colonies • In Sun Quan’s case (Wu), it came from private armies • In Jin’s case, private armies/troops • Military population increased rapidly in the south

17. Non-Han tribes in the North--viewed as barbarians by the Chinese • Tribal confederations • Powerful and successful chiefs became rulers of dynasties • Strongest one dominated and even unified the entire north, for instance, the Tuoba (Tabgatch) tribe led by TuobaGui • TuobaGui established a dynasty called Northern Wei, or Tuoba Wei,

18. Non-Chinese dominance in the North • Non-Chinese officially took over north China in 317 AD. Powerful tribes included • Xiongnu • Xianbei (Murong, Yuwen, Tuoba) • Di, Qiang, Jie • Multi-state system began with the formation of the sixteen kingdoms, which occupied north China and challenged South China ruled by the Eastern Jin

19. Sinicization • Rulers of Northern Wei (Tuoba Wei) • Tuoba Gui, ruler of the new Northern Wei state, built a unified Chinese-style capital at Ping Cheng in the north • His dynasty represented one of many “conquest dynasties” throughout Chinese history • adopted Chinese system of administration • Reorganized their people into eight artificial tribes and forced them to abandon nomadism

20. Converted the nomadic tribal armies into a hereditary military-service class bound to the state, transferring military’s loyalty from tribal chief to the dynasty • As the emperor, Tuoba Gui commanded his armies with unchallenged power and authority

21. Emperor Xiaowen • moved the capital to Luoyang and actually initiated a process of acculturation, that can be called sinicization, intending to integrate Xianbei and Han cultures • adopted Chinese bureaucratic system and recruiting talented Han Chinese to serve • fused Xianbei and Han Chinese through intermarriage and shared rankings;

22. promoted intermarriage between powerful families of Han Chinese and Xianbei elites required his court officials to wear Chinese costume and speak Chinese language • allowed Han Chinese to administer Chinese districts/provinces as governors • used Chinese surnames in place of their tribal names, for instance, Tuoba was renamed as Yuan (元). • Adopted Chinese language and required Xianbei people to speak and write Chinese

25. Transformation of Landscape • New capitals emerged in the south,alsointhenorth • New physical spaces for new activities appeared as a result of newly emerged literary and cultural forms: • gardens, villas, taverns, pavilions…. • New architecture and city planning resulted from the rise of institutional religions, notably Buddhism • Temples, monasteries madenewpublicspacesavailable

26. Capitalandcitieswerenolongerviewedasunreachable,grandioseentitiesbelongingtoimperialandofficials’residences, but as a part of rural life • Literary works fromlateHan reflected the close tie between ordinary people and cities, as in the poem titled “white head song”: • I hear you have a new love • And so have come to say farewell. • Our whole life in the city • Did we ever party with measures of wine?

27. Today we party with measures of wine, • But tomorrow dawn I will stand at the head of the canal. • I trudge along the imperial canal, • With the water flowing east and west • West of the city wall there is a wood gatherer. • East of the city wall there is a wood gatherer. • 聞 君 有 兩 意 ， 故 來 相 決 絕 。  • 平 生 共 城 中 ， 何 嘗 斗 酒 會 ？ • 今 日 斗 酒 會 ， 明 旦 溝 水 頭 。 • 蹀 躞 御 溝 上 ， 溝 水 東 西 流。 • 郭 東 亦 有 樵 ， 郭 西 亦 有 樵 。  

28. Each of the city wall there is a wood gatherer. • They both urge me on, • But without a family, for whom can one be proud? • 兩 樵 相 推 與 ， 無 親 為 誰 驕。

29. UrbanelementsappearinthecelebratedNineteenAncientPoems,ordinarypeople,reflectedthecloseconnectionbetweenordinarypeopleandcitiesUrbanelementsappearinthecelebratedNineteenAncientPoems,ordinarypeople,reflectedthecloseconnectionbetweenordinarypeopleandcities Awomanwasonceasigninggirlinacity( 昔為倡家女) Awifesingingasadsonginaloftytower“levelwithclouds”(西北有高樓， 上與浮雲齊) Areferenceto“theeasterncitywallishighandlong,windingandtwistingbackonitself”(東城高且長， 逶迤自相屬) referencesto“thecity’sEasternGate”andthe“cemeterynorthofthecity”(驅車上東門，遙望郭北墓)

30. ReferencestoLuoyangandNanyang(游戲宛與洛，洛中何鬱鬱),to mansionsofprincesandpeers(王候多第宅),andto “twopalacesdistantlyfaceoneanother,withtheirgatetowermorethanonehundredfeettall”(兩宮遙相望，雙闕百餘尺) abound. • Citieswereportrayedasplacesthatevokedsorrows,grief,andfeelingoflossandoffleetinglife.

31. PreviousrhapsodiesthatportrayedcapitalcitiesofChang’anandLuoyangnowgavewaytothatportrayedregionalcapitalsPreviousrhapsodiesthatportrayedcapitalcitiesofChang’anandLuoyangnowgavewaytothatportrayedregionalcapitals • ZuoSi’s“ThreeCapitalsRhapsodies”celebrate regionalcultureratherthanthegrandeurofthecapitalsofthestate. • Depictregionallandscape,customs,andreallifeexperiencesofeliteandordinarypeople • reflectsocialrealitythatcanbesubstantiatedbythenamesofreallocalplaces,things,nature,andcustom • Example:“TheWuCapitalRhapsody”

32. Cities and Landscape in the South • Capital Jiankang represented an artificial replica of natural, mountain-and-water landscape • Gardens and large estates became new spaces for private and public activities • Construction or large gardens and estates that symbolized power and prestige caused deforestation • Mountains gained recognition • Landlords built private gardens in the capital, bring natural landscape into their own families • Established southern families converged in the southeast of Jiankang ; northern émigrés developed estates in Guiji, east of the capital

33. Capital City Jiankang • Earlier, its natural landscape made it a defensive city without wall—the topography was described as “coiled dragon” and “crouching tiger” • Gardens and estates built throughout the capital and its surroundings blurred this topography or the natural barrier between city and country • The construction of Buddhist temples helped intensify this blurring of the boundary between the city and the country

34. Gardens, villas, estates in the South • “West Garden” at Wang Dao’s residence • One of the earliest gardens built in Jiankang. • Filled with orchards, strange rocks, birds, and wildlife artificially reconstructed an invited recluse’s habitat in the mountains. • Xie Lingyun’s estate and lodge • As was portrayed in his rhapsody “On Dwelling in the Mountains.” • rivers, hills, gardens, orchards, bamboo groves • Gathering place of Buddhist monks and Daoist adepts

35. Shi Chong’s “Golden Valley Villa” • Clear springs, fruit trees, bamboo, pines • Medical herb, cultivated land, two hundred head of sheep, chickens, pigs, geese, ducks… • Water mills, fish ponds, caves • Orchestra formed by players of lutes, zithers, and mouth organs, drums, and wind instruments • Poems were composed after music

37. Northern Cities • Ye (in modern Hebei)—capital city of Cao Wei, Latter Zhao, Former Yan, Eastern Wei, and Northern Qi • The city was a rectangle bisected by a major east-west road • North of the road : palace complexes, aristocratic residences, and imperial park • Government offices on the eastern section, imperial retreat on the western section • South of the road: a grid of residential wards • Marked by a substantial female presence and activities • Men and women enjoyed relative equality

38. Importance of the city: • City plan provided the immediate model for the capitals of the subsequent Sui and Tang dynasties • And for early capitals in the Korean peninsula, Palhae (Bohai), and Nara in Japan.

39. Buddhist Temples • Now built in the capital city and many other cities became new public spaces • marked a major innovation in the spatial structure of the Chinese city • Number of temples in Luoyang increased rapidly: • 3, by late 3rd AD • 42, by 316 AD • 839, after 317 AD • 1,367 after 493 AD (Northern Wei) • Number continued to increase thereafter

40. Cave Temple Sculpture • Large-scale public image worship • Yungang cave temple sculpture (started after 460 AD) built by the Northern Wei Yungang Cave

41. One of 2,895 pieces of Buddhist sculptures unearthed in the historical city Ye, in Chinese New Year time, in 2012. • These sculptures were made in the Northern Wei, the Eastern Wei, the Northern Qi, and the Tang

42. Multistoried Pagoda • Signaled the extension of imperial power to Buddhist community, the expansion of Buddhism, and the change of urban life • A seven-storied pagoda was included in the Yongning Temple in 467 when Northern Wei had its capital in Pingcheng • Monasteries and pagodas were packed closely together in Luoyang, after Northern Wei moved its capital there in 493

43. Pagoda Stupa

44. Who built these temples? • Members of the ruling elite (the majority) • Imperial clan • Middle-level officials • Wealthy commoners (probably businessmen) • Eunuchs • Monks (the minority)

45. Why did they build temples? • Showed their piety towards Buddhism • Acquired political power and social prestige • Converting private mansions into temples became one of the important “lay donations” • Lay donations marked a turning point in Buddhist history • Imperial kin and wealthy people donated wealth to build temples, make Buddhist images, celebrate festivals…for the benefit of the populace

46. Forms of devotion to Buddhism • Monetary donation to temples • Image, statue making • Building temples • Public display of Buddha’s statue in procession • Writing “miracle tales” • Festivals and public performances dedicated to the Buddha

47. Social functions of temples • They were open, semi-public spaces to the populace • Their patrons included people from “all four directions,” • Chinese and “barbarian,” • men and women, • rich and poor, • monks and laymen • They were centers of regular festivals and public performances • Celebration of the Buddha’s birthday on April8th

48. Structure of Early Buddhist Temples • First Yongning Temple in Pingcheng • Built in 467, by Empress Feng • included three large halls and a seven-story pagoda, • About three hundred chi (roughly 328 feet) tall, the largest and highest construction in China at that time

49. The second Yongning Temple, built in 516 in Luoyang by the Dowager Empress Ling (Hu Chonghua), consisted a nine-story pagoda which was a central locus of imperial authority 900 Chinese feet high

50. Worship of Buddhism • South: Imperial patronage • Emperor Wu of the Liang • North: absorption of the Buddhist monastic order • promoted self-image as “wheel-turning king” • sponsored sculpturing of images of buddhas Cave 16, Standing Bodhisattva