SESSION FIVE:

1. SESSION FIVE: MOTIVATION INSTRUCTION

2. MOTIVATION • internal state or condition that activates behavior and gives it direction; • * desire or want that energizes and directs goal-oriented behavior; • * influence of needs and desires on the intensity and direction of behavior. • Franken (1994) provides an additional component in his definition: • * the arousal, direction, and persistence of behavior. • Researchers are now beginning to acknowledge that the factors that energize behavior are likely different from the factors that provide for its persistence.

3. MOTIVATION • In general, explanations regarding the source(s) of motivation can be categorized as either extrinsic (outside the person) or intrinsic (internal to the person). Intrinsic sources and corresponding theories can be further subcategorized as either body/physical, mind/mental or transpersonal/spiritual.

4. MOTIVATION • In current literature, needs are now viewed as dispositions toward action (i.e., they create an environment which is predisposed towards taking action or making a change and moving in a certain direction). Action or overt behavior may be initiated by either positive or negative incentives or a combination of both. The following chart provides a brief overview of the different sources of motivation (internal state) that have been studied. • motivsosurces.html

5. MOTIVATION • There are several motivational theories that trace their roots to the information processing approach to learning. These approaches focus on the categories and labels people use help to identify thoughts, emotions, dispositions, and behaviors. • The first is cognitive dissonance theory which is in some respects similar to disequilibrium in Piaget’s theory. This theory states that when there is a discrepancy between two beliefs, actions or belief and action, we will act to resolve conflict and discrepancies. The implication is that if can create the appropriate amount of disequilibrium this will in turn lead to the individual changing his or her behavior which in turn will lead to a change in thought patterns which in turn leads to more change in behavior.

6. MOTIVATION • A second cognitive approach is attribution theory which proposes that every individual tries to explain success or failure of self and others by offering certain "attributions". These attributions are either internal or external and are either under our control or not in our control. The following chart shows the four attributions that result from a combination of internal or external locus of control and whether or not control is possible. • attribution.html

7. MOTIVATION • A third cognitive approach is expectancy theory, which proposes the following equation: • MOTIVATION = Perceived Probability of Success X Value of Obtaining Goal • Since this formula states that the two factors of Perceived Probability and Value are to be multiplied by each other, a low value in one will result in a low value of motivation. Therefore, both must be present in order for motivation to occur.

8. MOTIVATION • KELLER’S ARCS MODEL: • ATTENTION • RELEVANCE • CONFIDENCE • SATISFACTION

9. MOTIVATION • BANDURA’S SELF-EFFICACY THEORY: • BELIEF THAT ONE IS CAPABLE OF LEARNING OR PERFORMING SOME TASK • BELIEF THAT SUCH LEARNING WILL LEAD TO DESIRABLE OUTCOMES • N.B. SELF-EFFICACY EVALUATION IS BASED ON PERCEPTION, NOT ACTUAL ABILITY

10. MOTIVATION • MOTIVATION IN THE CLASSROOM • motivclassroom.html

11. INSTRUCTION • BLOOM’S TAXONOMY

14. INSTRUCTION • MASTERY LEARNING • Mastery learning proposes that all children can learn when provided with the appropriate learning conditions in the classroom. • The application of mastery learning is based on Benjamin Bloom's Learning for Mastery model, with refinements made by Block. Mastery learning is predominantly a group-based, teacher-paced instructional approach, in which students learn by cooperating with their classmates. However, some mastery learning strategies require students to work independently, rather than with classmates.

15. INSTRUCTION • How Mastery Learning Affects Education • Curriculum--Mastery learning does not focus on content, but on the process of mastering it. This type of learning works best with the traditional content-focused curriculum, one based on well-defined learning objectives organized into smaller, sequentially organized units. • Instruction--This strategy captures many of the elements of successful tutoring and the independent functionality seen in high-end students. In a mastery learning environment, the teacher directs a variety of group-based instructional techniques. The teacher also provides frequent and specific feedback by using diagnostic, formative tests, as well as regularly correcting mistakes students make along their learning path. • Assessment--Teachers evaluate students with criterion-referenced tests rather then norm-referenced tests. Mastery learning ensures numerous feedback loops, based on small units of well-defined, appropriately sequenced outcomes.

16. INSTRUCTION • GAGNE’S THEORY OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

17. INSTRUCTION • GAGNE’S THEORY OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN: OUTCOME CATEGORIES • Verbal information: Reciting something from memory • Intellectual skills: • Discrimination: Recognizing that two classes of things differ • Concrete concept: Classifying things by their physical features alone • Defined concept: Classifying things by their abstract (and possibly physical) features • Rule: Applying a simple procedure to solve a problem or accomplish a task

18. INSTRUCTION • GAGNE’S THEORY OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN: OUTCOME CATEGORIES • Higher-order rule: Applying a complex procedure (or multiple simple procedures) to solve a problem or accomplish a task • Cognitive strategies: Inventing or selecting a particular mental process to solve a problem or accomplish a task • Attitudes: Choosing to behave in a way that reflects a newly-acquired value or belief • Motor skills: Performing a physical task to some specified standard

19. INSTRUCTION • TASK ANALYSIS or LEARNING HIERARCHY