Biological Diversity

1. Biological Diversity Conceptual levels • Genetic: genes, DNA • Determines diversity within a species • Eg 1000 genes in bacteria, 10,000 in fungi, 700,000 in flowering plants etc • …is what allows populations to adapt to changes in climate and other local environmental conditions… • Species: • Mammals, birds, reptiles • rate of extinction>rate of species formation • Domestication of few species

2. Biological Diversity • Ecosystems • An ecosystem is a system where populations of species group together into communities and interact with each other and the abiotic environment. • Marine – eg coral reefs • Terrestrial – eg deserts, rivers, mountain etc

3. Biological Diversity Management concepts • max sustainable yield -the largest yield that can be obtained which does not deplete or damage natural resources irreparably and which leaves the environment in good order for future generations. -the maximum amount of a species or group of species that can be taken without diminishing the future take. • optimum yield • Precautionary approach -large safety factor -continuos monitoring/assesment -public review

4. Biological Diversity/nature conservation Management concepts • max sustainable yield -the largest yield that can be obtained which does not deplete or damage natural resources irreparably and which leaves the environment in good order for future generations. -the maximum amount of a species or group of species that can be taken without diminishing the future take. • optimum yield • Precautionary approach -large safety factor -continuos monitoring/assesment -public review

5. Biological Diversity/nature conservation Functions of the law • Distributive: Ownership status • Conservatory: by regulation • Proscriptive: by prohibition

6. Biological Diversity/nature conservation Legal status of living resources/habitats/ecosystems • Sovereign property • Common property More modern requirements: • Transboundary biological resources • Animal rights? • Environmentalists • Common heritage

7. Biological Diversity/nature conservation Soft law • UNEP Principles of Conduct…conservation..harmonious utilization of natural resources shared… 1978 • IUCN World Charter for Nature (WCN) 1982 -wise use -unique areas - persons participation, individual obligations to protect -International areas

8. Biological Diversity/nature conservation Bruntland report 1987 -biosphere reserves -common heritage -trust fund -World bank role -22 legal principles

9. Biological Diversity/nature conservation • Rio Declaration 1992 Agenda 21 Combating deforestation Fragile ecosystems Sustainable mountain development Sustainable agriculture Conservation of biodiversity Sound management of biotechnology Sustainable use of ocean resources Habitat conservation

10. Biological Diversity/nature conservation • IUCN Draft International Convention on Environment and Development 2000

11. treaties Convention on Biological Diversity 1993 (188 parties, in force 1994) • negotiations • preamble • objectives (art 1) • Conservation of diversity • Sustainable use if components • Fair and equitable sharing of benefits from use, access to genetic resources, tech transfer • Rights over resources/technologies • definitions (art 3) • Jur scope (art 4) • in-situ/ex situ conservation measures (art 8-10) • access to genetic resources (art 15), share results • access to technology (esp art 16), intellectual property rights, private sector • handling of biotechnology (art 19)

12. Convention on Biological Diversity 1993 • Institutions: • COP (Montreal) -Subsidiary bodies -Subsidiary Body on scientific, technical and technological advice -open ended working group on biosafety 1996-1999 -expert panel on access and benefit sharing -open ended ad hoc working group on article 8(j) • Clearing House Mechanism – internet based • Compliance: weak national reporting (art 26), financial compensation for compliance (art 20.2), social/economic incentives for compliance (art 11) but reports available to public de facto, igo/ngo observer status (art 23.5) • No enforcement provision/protocol yet • Financial mechanism through GEF/WB

13. Access to genetic resources: practice • 1995, the Philippines required bioprospectors to get "prior informed consent" from both the government and local peoples. • Costa Rica's National Institute of Biodiversity (INBIO) signed a historic bioprospecting agreement with a major drug company to receive funds and share in benefits from biological materials that are commercialized. • Countries of the Andean Pact (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Venezuela) have adopted laws and measures to regulate access to their genetic resources: • submission of duplicate samples of genetic resources collected to a designated institution • a national institution for collection of genetic resources • sharing existing information • sharing research results with the competent national authority • assisting in the strengthening of institutional capacities • sharing specific financial or related benefits.

14. Access to technology practice? • No particular legislation • But: • Much scientific info available on internet/ published • Exchange of students

15. Convention on Biological Diversity 1993Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (117 parties, in force since sept 2003) • LMOs transgenic modification GMOs Traditional modification Therefore, protocol: -advance informed agreement procedure (art 7) -export/import notification (art 8, 9, 10) -labelling requirements -biosafety clearing house for information access

16. Post CBD • Convention on Desertification 1994 • Forest Principles NON-LEGALLY BINDING AUTHORITATIVE STATEMENT OF PRINCIPLES FOR A GLOBAL CONSENSUS ON THE MANAGEMENT, CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF ALL TYPES OF FORESTS

17. Pre CBD - Existing treaties four main treaties: • Ramsar Convention 1971 • World Heritage Convention 1972 • CITES 1973 • Migratory species convention 1979

18. Pre CBD - Existing treaties • Common characteristics • Listing • protected areas • COP • national reporting • dispute settlement by negotiation only -after CBD, practice of MoUs -reservations to listings allowed!

19. Pre-CBDRamsar Convention 1971 (in force 1975, 144 parties Wetlands of International Importance • Lists int imp wetlands • Wise use concept

20. Pre-CBDWorld Heritage Convention 1972(unesco in force 1975, 177 parties)world heritage list

21. Pre-CBDWorld Heritage Convention 1972 World heritage in danger list

22. Pre-CBDWorld Heritage Convention 1972 Australia v Tasmania (Tasmania Dam case 1983) • Australia is a federation • states retain part of their sovereignty acc to their constitution • Constitution defines the areas of federal legislation; in residual areas, states have jurisdiction • federal government in Australia conducts foreign affairs.  • Australia – fed gov - member of WHC, this site listed • Could federal government legislate in an area covered by the treaty where it would have had no power to legislate had the treaty not been made? • Yes : therefore, no dam to be built in archeol./ biol imp/sensitive area even if Tasmanian people want it

23. World Heritage Convention also • Return looted heritage • Eg Ethiopian obelisk from Rome – E • Protecting heritage sites during wars

24. Convention on migratory species of wild animals 1979 (UNEP, in force 1983, 89 parties) • Obligations depend on state of threat • App I most endangered: conserve and restore habitats • App II not endangered: agreements to restore

25. APPENDIX I  OF THE CONVENTION ON THE CONSERVATION OF MIGRATORY SPECIES OF WILD ANIMALS (CMS) (as amended by the Conference of the Parties in 1985, 1988, 1991, 1994, 1997, 1999 and 2002) Effective: 23 December 2002 Interpretation Pre CBD-Migratory species convention 1979 • APPENDIX I OF THE CONVENTION ON THE CONSERVATION OF MIGRATORY SPECIES OF WILD ANIMALS (CMS) (as amended by the Conference of the Parties in 1985, 1988, 1991, 1994, 1997, 1999 and 2002) Mammalia CHIROPTERA               Molossidae Tadarida brasiliensisPRIMATES              Hominidae (1)Gorilla gorilla beringeiCETACEA              Physeteridae Physeter macrocephalus *              Platanistidae Platanista gangetica gangetica *              Pontoporiidae Pontoporia blainvillei *              BalaenopteridaeBalaenoptera borealis *Balaenoptera physalus *Balaenoptera musculusMegaptera novaeangliae              Balaenidae Balaena mysticetusEubalaena glacialis (2) (North Atlantic)Eubalaena japonica (3) (North Pacific)Eubalaena australis (4)CARNIVORA              Mustelidae Lontra felina (5)Lontra provocax (6)              Felidae Uncia uncia (7)              Phocidae (8)Monachus monachus *SIRENIA               Trichechidae Trichechus manatus *  (populations between Honduras and Panama)  PERISSODACTYLA              EquidaeEquus grevyiARTIODACTYLA              Camelidae Camelus bactrianusVicugna vicugna * (except Peruvian populations)              CervidaeCervus elaphus barbarusHippocamelus bisulcus              BovidaeBos sauveliBos grunniensAddax nasomaculatusGazella cuvieriGazella damaGazella dorcas (only Northwest African populations)Gazella leptocerosOryx dammah *AvesSPHENISCIFORMES              Spheniscidae Spheniscus humboldtiPROCELLARIIFORMES               Diomedeidae Diomedea albatrusDiomedea amsterdamensis              Procellariidae Pterodroma cahowPterodroma phaeopygiaPterodroma sandwichensis (9)Puffinus creatopus               Pelecanoididae Pelecanoides garnotiiPELECANIFORMES              Pelecanidae Pelecanus crispus *Pelecanus onocrotalus * (only Palearctic populations) CICONIIFORMES              Ardeidae Egretta eulophotesGorsachius goisagi              Ciconiidae Ciconia boyciana              Threskiornithidae Geronticus eremita *Platalea minorPHOENICOPTERIFORMES                PhoenicopteridaePhoenicopterus andinus (10)Phoenicopterus jamesi (11)ANSERIFORMES               AnatidaeAnser cygnoides *Anser erythropus *Branta ruficollis *Chloephaga rubidiceps *Anas formosa *Marmaronetta angustirostris *Aythya nyroca *Polysticta stelleri *Oxyura leucocephala *FALCONIFORMES                 AccipitridaeHaliaeetus albicilla *Haliaeetus leucoryphus *Haliaeetus pelagicus *Aquila clanga *Aquila heliaca *Aquila adalberti (12) *                Falconidae Falco naumanni *  1. Formerly listed as Pongidae 2. Formerly included in Balaena glacialis glacialis 3. Formerly included in Balaena glacialis glacialis 4. Formerly listed as Balaena glacialis australis 5. Formerly listed as Lutra felina 6. Formerly listed as Lutra provocax 7. Formerly listed as Panthera uncia 8.The order PINNIPEDIA is now included in the order CARNIVORA 9.Formerly included in Pterodroma phaeopygia (s.l.) 10.Formerly listed as Phoenicoparrus andinus 11. Formerly listed as Phoenicoparrus jamesi 12.Formerly included in Aquila heliaca (s.l.) 13.Formerly listed as Chettusia gregaria

26. Pre-CBDCITES Convention on the international trade in endangered species of flora and fauna 1973 (IUCN, in force 1975, 167 parties) Trade in endangered species Aim: prevent commercial trade in.. 3 appendices: • Appendix I: species threatened with extinction; trade only in exceptional circumstances. • Appendix II :species not necessarily threatened with extinction, but trade must be controlled to avoid future survival danger. • Appendix III: species protected in at least one country, asked other CITES Parties for assistance in controlling the trade.

27. Pre CBDCITES- endangered species lists • Appendices I, II and III valid from 16 October 2003 Appendix IAppendix II Appendix III F A U N A (ANIMALS)P H Y L U M C H O R D A T A CLASS MAMMALIA (MAMMALS) PRIMATES Apes, monkeys   Lemuridae Large lemurs Lemuridae spp.   Megaladapidae Sportive lemurs Megaladapidae spp. (possibly extinct)   Cheirogaleidae Dwarf lemurs Cheirogaleidae spp.   Indridae Avahi, indris, sifakas, woolly lemurs Indridae spp.   Daubentoniidae Aye-aye Daubentonia madagascariensis   Callitrichidae Marmosets, tamarins Callimico goeldii Callithrix aurita

28. Pre-CBDCITES 1973 • States must establish management, scientific authority • Permit system (export and import) • Data collection and monitoring by NGOs • National implementation eg UK Criminal Justice Act Nov 2003

29. Marine biodiversity Original legal status of seas: • Territorial seas (3 miles) • High seas • Pacific Fur Seals arbitration • Migratory seals not sovereign property • Freedom of high seas • Joint conservation/management model but regime failed

30. Marine biodiversity • Iceland’s unilateral declaration of 12 mile territorial sea 1972 • Iceland declares exclusive fisheries zone 50 miles • Icelandic fisheries cases 1974 • UNCLOS III 1982 Legal status of seas today: territorial sea 12 miles: coastal state jur. exclusive economic zone 200 miles : coastal state jur. if declared high seas : freedom

31. Marine Biodiversity • Straddling Stocks Agreement 1995 (in force 2001) • Convention for Regulation of Whaling 1946 • UNEP Regional Seas conventions Indirect: Pollution treaties – oil spills, land based, from vessels, emergencies

32. Biodiversity/ nature conservation • prohibitions, restrictions, trade control/sanctions for endangered species • No customary law to protect endangered species/sites/habitats, all through treaty • CBD principles – non binding – only provide guidance • Precautionary principle • Equitable sharing - of benefits of traditional knowledge but only appropriate access to technology, not equitable access • Intergenerational equity • Obligation to cooperate – info exchange of publicly available info, not private • governments to enable access to biotech research/ results of using genetic resources • Equity principles not so well developed complex re genetic resources and implementation/ enforcement up to state party • Large nm of treaties, still piecemeal, CBD fills gaps overlaps/synergies need working out