REVIEW

1. REVIEW PHARMA ANATOMOY MIDTERM • Dr. Kaan Yücel • 3.11.2011

2. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY

3. The term human anatomycomprises a consideration of the various structures which make up the human organism. • In a restricted sense it deals with the parts which form the fully developed individual and which can be rendered evident to the naked eye by various methods of dissection.

4. Types of anatomy The three main approaches to studying anatomy are regional, systemic, and clinical (or applied), reflecting the body's organization and the priorities and purposes for studying it. In systematic anatomy, various structures may be separately considered. The organs and tissues may be studied in relation to one another in topographicalorregional anatomy.

5. Surface anatomy • An essential part of the study of regional anatomy. • Providesknowledge of what lies under the skin and what structures are perceptible to touch (palpable) in the living body at rest and in action.

6. Systematic Anatomy The various systems of which the human body: Osteology—the bony system or skeleton. Syndesmology—the articulations or joints. Myology—the muscles. Angiology—the vascular system, comprising the heart, bloodvessels, lymphatic vessels, and lymph glands. Neurology—the nervous system. The organs of sense may be included in this system. Splanchnology—the visceral system.

7. The anatomical position refers to the body position as if the person were standing upright with the: • Head, eyes, and toes directed anteriorly (forward) • Armsadjacent to the sides with the palms facing anteriorly • Lowerlimbs close together with the feet parallel.

8. AnatomicalPlanes Anatomical descriptions are based on four imaginary planes (median, sagittal, frontal-coronal, and transverse-axial)that intersect the body in the anatomical position. Sagittal= New Latin sagittālis < sagitta (“arrow”) Coronal= L. corona "crown, garland» Axial= "pertainingto an axis,«

9. The median plane, the vertical plane passing longitudinally through the body, divides the body into right and left halves. • Sagittal planes are vertical planes passing through the body parallel to the median plane.

10. Frontal (coronal) planes are vertical planes passing through the body at right angles to the median plane, dividing the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts.

11. Transverse planes are horizontal planes passing through the body at right angles to the median and frontal planes, dividing the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) parts. Radiologists refer to transverse planes as transaxial, which is commonly shortened to axial planes.

12. Medialis usedtoindicatethat a structure is nearertothemedianplane of the body. Forexample, the 5th digit of thehand (littlefinger) is medialtotheotherdigits. • Lateralstipulatesthat a structure is fartherawayfromthemedianplane. The 1st digit of thehand (thumb) is lateraltotheotherdigits. • Dorsumusuallyreferstothesuperioraspect of anypartthatprotrudesanteriorlyfromthe body, such as thedorsum of thetongue, nose, penis, orfoot

13. Anatomicaltermsarespecificforcomparisonsmade in theanatomicalposition, orwithreferencetotheanatomicalplanes: • Superiorrefersto a structurethat is nearerthevertex, thetopmostpoint of thecranium (Mediev. L., skull). • Inferiorrefersto a structurethat is situatednearerthe sole of thefoot.

14. Posterior(dorsal) denotesthebacksurface of the body ornearertotheback. • Anterior (ventral) denotesthefrontsurface of the body. • Todescribetherelationship of twostructures, one is saidto be anteriororposteriortotheotherinsofar as it is closertotheanteriororposterior body surface.

15. Proximalanddistalareusedwhencontrastingpositionsnearertoorfartherfromtheattachment of a limborthecentralaspect of a linearstructure (origin in general), respectively. Forexample, thearm is proximaltotheforearmandthehand is distaltotheforearm.

16. Terms of movementmayalso be considered in pairs of oppositingmovements: Flexionandextensionmovementsgenerallyoccur in sagittalplanesaround a transverseaxis.

17. Flexionindicatesbendingordecreasingtheanglebetweenthebonesorparts of the body. Formostjoints (e.g., elbow), flexioninvolvesmovement in an anteriordirection, but it is occasionallyposterior, as in thecase of thekneejoint. • Lateralflexionis a movement of thetrunk in thecoronalplane.

18. Extensionindicatesstraighteningorincreasingtheanglebetweenthebonesorparts of the body. Extensionusuallyoccurs in a posteriordirection. • Thekneejoint, rotated 180° tootherjoints, is exceptional in thatflexion of thekneeinvolvesposteriormovementandextensioninvolvesanteriormovement.

20. OSTEOLOGY BONES

21. The skeletal system may be divided into • 2functional parts: • The axial skeleton • head (cranium or skull) • neck (hyoid bone and cervical vertebrae) • trunk (ribs, sternum, vertebrae, and sacrum) • The appendicular skeleton • Limbs • including those forming the shoulde & pelvic girdles

22. Bone has a protective function; the skull and vertebral column, for example, protect the brain and spinal cord from injury; the sternum and ribs protect the thoracic and upper abdominal viscera. • It serves as a lever, as seen in the long bones of the limbs, and as an important storage area for calcium salts. • It houses and protects within its cavities the delicate blood-forming bone marrow.

23. Classification of Bones • Bones are classified according to their shape. • Long bones • Short bones • Flat bones • Irregular bones • Sesamoid bones

24. Classification of Bones • Long bones are tubular (e.g., the humerus in the arm).

25. Classification of Bones • Short bones are cuboidal and are found only in the tarsus (ankle) and carpus (wrist).

26. Classification of Bones • Irregular bones have various shapes other than long, short, or flat (e.g., bones of the face).

27. Classification of Bones • Sesamoidbones(e.g., the patella or knee cap) develop in certain tendons and are found where tendons cross the ends of long bones in the limbs; they protect the tendons from excessive wear and often change the angle of the tendons as they pass to their attachments.

28. There are two types of bones according to histological features: compact bone and spongy (trabecular) bone. • They are distinguished by the relative amount of solid matter and by the number and size of the spaces they contain.

29. The skull is supported on the summit of the vertebral column, and is of an oval shape, wider behind than in front. It is composed of a series of flattened or irregular bones which, with one exception (the mandible), are immovably jointed together. It is divisible into two parts: cranium, which lodges and protects the brain, consists of 8 bones skeleton of the face,of 14

30. Ossa Cranii

32. Cranial Fossas • The inferior and anterior parts of the frontal lobes of the brain occupy the anterior cranial fossa, the shallowest of the three cranial fossae. • The fossa is formed by the frontal bone anteriorly, the ethmoid bone in the middle, and the body and lesser wings of the sphenoid posteriorly.

33. The butterfly-shaped middle cranial fossa has a central part composed of the sellaturcica on the body of the sphenoid and large, depressed lateral parts on each side.

34. The posterior cranial fossa, the largest and deepest of the three cranial fossae, lodges the cerebellum, pons, and medulla oblongata. • The posterior cranial fossa is formed mostly by the occipital bone.

35. The Facial Bones Nasal Bones Maxillæ(Upper Jaw) 3. Lacrimal Bone 4. ZygomaticBone (Malar Bone) 5. Palatine Bone 6. Inferior Nasal Concha (Concha Nasalis Inferior; Inferior Turbinated Bone) 7. Vomer 8. Mandible (Lower Jaw) 9. Hyoid Bone

36. Ribs (L. costae) are curved, flat bones that form most of the thoracic cage. There are 3 types of ribs: • True (vertebrocostal) ribs (1st-7th ribs): • directly to the sternum. • False (vertebrochondral) ribs • (8th, 9th, and usually 10th ribs): • indirect withthesternum • Floating (vertebral, free) ribs • (11th, 12th, and sometimes 10th ribs): • No connectionwiththesternum

37. Typical ribs (3rd-9th) have the following components: • Head • Neck • Tubercle • Body (shaft) • .

38. Costal cartilages prolong the ribs anteriorly and contribute to the elasticity of the thoracic wall, providing a flexible attachment for their anterior ends.

39. Intercostal spaces separate the ribs and their costal cartilages from one another. • The spaces are named according to the rib forming the superior border of the space—for example, the 4th intercostal space lies between ribs 4 and 5. • There are 11 intercostal spaces and 11 intercostal nerves. Intercostal spaces are occupied by intercostal muscles and membranes, and two sets (main and collateral) of intercostal blood vessels and nerves, identified by the same number assigned to the space.

40. STERNUM G. sternon, chest Has threeparts: 1. Manubrium 2. Body 3. Xiphoidprocess Jugularnotch @ sup. margin of themanubrium Level of T2 vertebra Clavicularnotch

41. Vertebral column • In an adult typically consists of 33 vertebrae arranged in five regions: 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 4 coccygeal. • The vertebrae gradually become larger as the vertebral column descends to the sacrum and then become progressively smaller toward the apex of the coccyx.

42. The change in size is related to the fact that successive vertebrae bear increasing amounts of the body's weight as the column descends. • The vertebrae reach maximum size immediately superior to the sacrum, which transfers the weight to the pelvic girdle at the sacroiliac joints.

43. The vertebral column is flexible because it consists of many relatively small bones, called vertebrae (singular = vertebra), that are separated by resilient intervertebral (IV) discs.

44. Vertebrae vary in size and other characteristics from one region of the vertebral column to another, and to a lesser degree within each region; however, their basic structure is the same. • A typical vertebra consists of a vertebral body, a vertebral arch, and seven processes.

45. Clavicle (Tr. Köprücükkemiği) • The clavicle (collar bone) connects the upper limb to the trunk. • The shaft of the clavicle has a double curve in a horizontal plane.

46. Clavicle (Tr. Köprücükkemiği) • Its medial half is convex anteriorly, and its sternal end is enlarged and triangular where it articulates with the manubrium of the sternum at the sternoclavicular (SC) joint. • Its lateral half is concave anteriorly, and its acromial end is flat where it articulates with the acromion of the scapula at the acromioclavicular (AC) joint. • Thesecurvatures increase the resilience of the clavicle and give it the appearance of an elongated capital S.

47. Some prominent features of the superior and inferior surfaces of the clavicle: Sternal end Acromial end

48. The clavicle: • increases the range of motion of the limb. • affords protection to the neurovascular bundle supplying the upper limb. • transmits shocks (traumatic impacts) from the upper limb to the axial skeleton.

49. Scapula (Tr. Kürekkemiği) • The scapula(shoulder blade) is a triangular flat bone that lies on the posterolateral aspect of the thorax. • The convex posterior surface of the scapula is unevenly divided by a thick projecting ridge of bone, the spine of the scapula, into a small supraspinous fossa and a much larger infraspinous fossa.

50. Scapula (Tr. Kürekkemiği) • The concave costal surface of most of the scapula forms a large subscapular fossa. • The broad bony surfaces of the three fossae provide attachments for fleshy muscles.