Argumentation: A Primer

1. Argumentation: A Primer “Happiness is when everyone agrees that I’m right!”

2. What is Argumentation? • Argumentation -- clear thinking, logic to convince reader of the soundness of a particular opinion on a controversial issue. • Persuasion -- emotions used to convince reader to take a particular action. • Persuasion and argumentation are often combined.

3. Arguments must have the following: • Logos • Ethos • Pathos

4. Logos • "Logos" or soundness of argument -- facts, statistics, examples, and authoritative statements to support viewpoint. • Evidence must be: unified, specific, sufficient, accurate, and representative. This is the main strength of the argument.

5. Pathos • "Pathos" -- appeals to readers' needs, values, and attitudes, encouraging them to commit themselves to a viewpoint or course of action. • Pathos is derived from language (connotative -- strong emotional overtones).

6. Ethos • "Ethos" -- credibility and integrity. Prove to the reader that you're knowledgeable and trustworthy. • Give a balanced approach, acknowledge differing points of view; give lots of support for your viewpoint.

7. Inductive reasoning -- draw a conclusion from using specific details. (Small to big) Deductive reasoning -- apply a generalization to a specific case. (Big to small) There are two basic types of reasoning:

8. There are lots of things to consider. • First: There are perfectly wonderful, reasonable, intelligent people who disagree with you absolutely. (And there are dunderheads who may agree with you.) The moral: judge the argument, not the person.

9. Know what you know. • You need to be certain of what you know as well as of what you are uncertain -- that knowledge affects your use of proofs as well as your use of language.

10. Don’t offend. • Goodwill -- readers are more likely to listen to an argument if it is reasoned, cool, calm, and relatively dispassionate. • Focus on the issues, not the reader or opponent.

11. Know the history. • Be able to identify the controversy of your issue and why there is a controversy in the first place.

12. Know all sides. • You should be able to see the validity of both (all) sides of an issue. • Also, you should be able to determine what the two sides may agree on.

13. What can you do with both sides? • Refutations -- restate opposing points of view, acknowledge the validity of some of the arguments given by opponents, point out common grounds, present evidence for your position. • You must be able to refute the opposition in order to have a strong argument (and get an “A” on your essay).

14. Things to avoid: faulty conclusions, post hoc fallacy (cause-effect sequential but not related); non sequitur fallacy (conclusion has no connection to evidence); ad hominem argument (attach person rather than point of view);

15. More things to avoid: • faulty authority (when authority is in doubt); begging the question (reader expected to accept a controversial premise without proof); false analogy (two things share all characteristics if they share only a few); either-or fallacy (viewpoint can only have one of two solutions); red herring argument (deflect attention).

16. Structure • There is no one “better” way to structure an argument. Whatever works, whatever is actually convincing, is the “right” way to do it. • Do consider the “Rogerian” method, however, because it does contain all elements of a strong argument.

17. More stuff to think about: • Always be thorough. Find out what you don’t know -- do your research -- and don’t spout nonsense. • Avoid loaded words and prejudicial statements -- generalizations that are vague and often misleading and inaccurate.

18. Language issues: • Vary sentences structure. • Be aware of homonyms. • Be aware of transitions. • Be aware of connotations and denotations. • Have a clearly identifiable thesis.

19. Things to remember. • Avoid announcements. Please never say something like, “In this paper I will discuss…” That is fine for papers written in science or math classes, but it is not acceptable in an English class.

20. Possible Beginnings • Broad statement narrowing to a limited subject (end introduction with thesis statement) • Brief anecdote leading up to thesis • Comparative or opposite ideas leading up to thesis • Series of short questions leading to thesis • Quotes leading to thesis • Refutation of a common belief leading up to a thesis • Dramatic fact or statistic leading to thesis

21. Possible Conclusions • Summary of information presented (useful if your argument is long and/or complicated) • Prediction based on information presented • Quotation leading to concluding statement • Statistics leading to concluding statement • Recommendation or call for action

22. Double Check These: • Does the paper answer the assignment given? • Does the paper address your audience? • Does the paper have the appropriate tone? • Does the paper serve the purpose intended? • Is the thesis clear and easily understood? • Add information where it appears to lack adequate support.

23. More to remember: • Delete useless or confusing information. • Do all of the supporting statements actually support the thesis? • Are clear transitions used between thoughts, ideas, paragraphs? • Are the introduction and conclusion adequate and appropriate? • Is your organization systematic and methodical (consistent throughout the paper)?

24. More to consider: • Consider sentence structure and length. • Reconsider word choice. Never use profanity or slang. Always identify abbreviations. • Proofread for correct grammar, punctuation, typing errors. • REPEAT ALL OF THIS UNTIL YOU ARE SATISFIED (or cannot stand to look at it anymore).

25. Last Items • Give your paper a title • Make sure that your paper is on correct paper stock, typed, and legible. • Make sure that your paper is properly identified with your name, course title, date, and paper title • Make a copy of your paper and keep it as a record for yourself • Turn in your paper on time