Analyzing Organizations: Developing Cognitive Complexity

1. Analyzing Organizations: Developing Cognitive Complexity MPA 8002 The Structure and Theory of Human Organization Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.

2. Characteristics of human organizations... • because human interactions are fluid, changing, and in a constant state of flux depending on personalities and circumstances... …one can never be quite sure exactly how other people are going to respond in an interaction

3. what one might predict will be a logical outcome... ...is frequently just not the case

4. one can never be absolutely sure that what someone says... ...is the whole truth and nothing but the whole truth

5. as one looks about the organization, what one sees... ...is not able to be identified and classified easily

6. Characteristics of human organizations... In contrast to one’s expectations of order and clarity, human organizations are characterized by: complexity surprise deception ambiguity (Bolman & Deal, 2003)

7. Most sources of this chaos and confusion can be attributed to... a fundamental lack of clarity: what the issue is what really is happening what we want to accomplish the way we will accomplish it how we will assess and evaluate success or failure

8. Another source of this confusion and chaos can be attributed to... limitations in the organization: scarce resources ill-defined responsibilities basic incompetence

9. This lack of clarity and organizational limitations... renders individuals and groups: • unclear about what the facts are • what their roles and responsibilities are • whether and how they will be held accountable

10. Consequently, people spend their energies dealing with... • fears The origins of these irrational thoughts and paranoia oftentimes originate in rumors, distorted half-truths or, worse yet, lies and deceit... • doubts • worries

11. But, this dynamic only increases wonderment about... • various schemes and scenarios • imagined alternatives and probabilities • grand conspiracies And, as Weick (1977) notes, people then start to enact this perceived reality...

12. For the organizations and its members, this dynamic increases... • confusion • uncertainty • anxiety • paranoia

13. And further increases the probability of generating... • messes • mistakes • chaos • failure

14. In light of these factors, it is much easier to... • fault other people • blame the bureaucracy • complain about one’s powerlessness • become an organizational “drone”

15. ...than it is for people to... • take responsibility In plain language, to engage in “self-change,” the precursor to managing and leading others... • develop resolutions • overcome obstacles • lead others to a preferred future

16. Human organizations are characterized by... • complexity Reflective practice (Sergiovanni, 1986) reminds managers and leaders that the fundamental issue is: • surprise • deception The mindscapes and action platforms of managers and leaders—as well as most people in organizations— direct them to believe that organizations should be characterized by precision and order. • ambiguity

17. The cognitive dissonance implicit in this organizational reality provides a focus for the self-change needed to... • avoid self-deception, blame-finding, and self-protective behaviors • overcome the impediments to organizational improvement • enact self-correcting behaviors

18. The concept... • cognitive complexity: ...the refined intellectual ability to utilize a variety of theories of practice to examine practice episodes

19. the intellectual ability of a manager or leader to envision the organization from multiple and competing perspectives so as to develop a depth of organizational understanding that is at least equal to the factors impacting its functioning

20. cognitive complexity enables managers and leaders to examine organizational phenomena from diverse perspectives, each of which “complicates” how managers and leaders understand “what is.”

21. a tool that managers and leaders can use in reflective practice to expand their understanding of what is transpiring in practice episodes

22. Contrasting cognitive complexity and unitary cognition... cognitive complexity: unitary cognition: • focuses on alternatives • looks for quick answers • addresses fundamental issues while dealing with recurring problems • addresses recurring problems • focuses on the long term and resolutions • focuses on the short term and solutions that work • is proactive • is reactive • facilitates ethical decision making • seeks easy answers to complex issues

23. Metaphorically speaking... cognitive complexity: unitary cognition: • enables managers and leaders, like physicians, to “heal the disease” • provides band-aids for managers to “ameliorate the symptoms” of the disease • enables managers and leaders, like a fire chief, to focus on “fire prevention” • focuses managers and leaders on “putting out the fires”

24. Contrasting cognitive complexity and unitary cognition... unitary cognition makes managers and leaders: cognitive complexity enables managers and leaders: • to know what one sees • see what one knows • to envision alternatives • dictate a solution • to create the best possible pathway through the messes and chaos • impose the solution • use power • to exercise authority

25. The critical question for managers and leaders... • “practice episodes” can obfuscate How is one to know if what one sees is really there? • subjective “antecedents” can obscure Reflective practice reminds managers and leaders that: • “theories of practice” can foreclose objectivity

26. Integrating reflective practice and cognitive complexity... • Reflective practice and cognitive complexity require intellectual exercise and discipline • Reflective practice focuses upon practice episodes to ascertain how one’s beliefs and assumptions as well as one’s background and experiences impact organizational functioning • Cognitive complexity utilizes a wide variety of theories of practice to support reflective practice

27. Cognitive complexity and organizational analysis... Recall Bolman and Deal’s (1997) four-frame model identifying common theories of practice: the structural frame the political frame the human resources frame the symbolic frame Analyzing organizations through four frames inculcates in managers and leaders the cognitive complexity they need in order to diagnose the fundamental issues underlying the many pesky problems emerging in human organizations.

28. Organizational analysis:Bolman & Deal’s four-frame model… the structural frame

29. the human resources frame

30. the political frame

31. the symbolic frame

32. Cognitive complexity:contributions of the four frames... …objective the structural frame …logical …personal the human resources frame …practical …realistic the political frame …practical …personal the symbolic frame …meaningful

33. Cognitive complexity:limitations of the four frames... …impersonal …overly simplistic the structural frame …pessimistic … naïve the human resources frame …optimistic …impersonal the political frame …cynical …impractical the symbolic frame …overly complex

34. Looking at the clutter and confusion... • how managers and leaders think using unitary frames: • how managers and leaders think using cognitive complexity: • develop creativity • value certainty • take risks • assume rationality • approach matters playfully • emphasize control • focus on right questions • fear ambiguity, paradox, and “going with the flow” • engender faith

35. As problems inevitably arise... • how managers and leaders think using unitary frames: • how managers and leaders think using cognitive complexity: • limited view of organizational functioning • utilize a holistic framework • inquire into fundamental issues • reduce issues to problems • look for short-term solutions • consider long-term resolutions

36. When confronting problems... • how managers and leaders think using unitary frames: • how managers and leaders think using cognitive complexity: • choose rational solutions • a palette of options • inquire into fundamental issues • strive for objectivity • emphasize facts, logic, restructuring • bargain, train, celebrate, re-engineer

37. What people see in managers and leaders... • who think using unitary frames: • who think using cognitive complexity: • always looking for the “one best way” • unwavering in upholding principles • demanding the “one right answer” • flexible when applying principles • reacting to events • responsive • stunned by resistance • understanding of other points of view • blaming others for turmoil

38. This module has focused on... cognitive complexity ...the refined intellectual ability to utilize a variety of theories of practice to examine practice episodes

39. The next module will focus on... scenario building …and how managers and leaders use their minds and spirit to foster successful organizational change efforts.

40. References... • Argyris, C., & Schön, D. A. (1974). Theory in practice: Increasing professional effectiveness. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. • Bolman, L., & Deal, T. (1997). Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice, and leadership (2nd edition). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. • Schön, D. A. (1991). Educating the reflective practitioner. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. • Sergiovanni, T. J. (1986). Understanding reflective practice. Journal of Curriculum and Supervision, 1(4), 353-359.

41. Weick, K. E. (1977). Enactment processes in organizations. In B. M. Staw & G. R. Salancik (Eds.), New directions in organizational behavior (pp. 267‑300). Chicago, IL: St. Clair Press.