Chapter: 5 Practicing Terrorism: Gender Roles, Tactics and Force Multipliers

1. Chapter: 5 Practicing Terrorism: Gender Roles, Tactics and Force Multipliers

2. Gender and Mission • Gender and Mission • Ideology draws certain types of recruits to a movement, and it influences the tactics terrorist groups employ. • Gender impacts tactics and is often related to ideology. • Women active through the evolution of terrorism • Women were active in terrorism: • at the time of the French Revolution, • in 19th century Russia, • in racial terrorism in the United States, • in revolutionary terrorism in Ireland and leftist movements after 1968. • The role of women is more closely related to political orientation than tactics (rather than based on religion).

3. Gender and Mission • Women are more drawn to domestic terrorist groups. • Women in domestic groups gravitate toward combat and leadership. • Women in international groups are more likely to be employed as supporters, sympathizers and spies. • Women relegated to support and service in religious terrorist groups. • This has changed as women become more involved. • Women developed combat and leadership positions in secular organizations.

4. Gender and Mission • The role of women in racial terrorism in the United States: • In the post-Civil War era, they served as inspiration for male violence. • In the 20th century women became actively involved in lynching. • In the late twentieth century, White Supremacy groups recruited women in support roles.

5. Gender and Mission • Overlooking Female terrorists • Female terrorism is overlooked for the same reason that female criminality has been underplayed: researchers do not think of women as criminals, but rather, as victims. • Popular culture does not accept the idea of female terrorists. • Women used as attackers or suicide bombers are following male model.

6. Tactics of Terrorism and Multiplying Force • Six tactics of terrorism: • Bombing • Hijacking • Arson • Assault • Kidnapping • Hostage taking • Terrorism includes threats from weapons of mass destruction (WMD) and virtual attacks through computer systems.

7. Tactics of Terrorism and Multiplying Force • Tactics of terrorism can be enhanced by force multipliers. • Force multipliers • increase striking power without increasing the strength of a unit • Force multipliers giving terrorists more striking power include: • Technology • Media coverage • Transnational support networks • Religious fanaticism

8. Tactics of Terrorism and Multiplying Force • Most common weapon of terrorism is the bomb. • Anarchists in 1848 – philosophy of the bomb • Only way to communicate with the social order was to destroy it. • Irish Republican Army found the bomb to be the most important weapon after 1969. • Groups throughout the world found bombs could be delivered by suicide attackers • Suicide bombings and road side bombs are weapons of choice against U.S. military in Iraq.

9. Tactics of Terrorism and Multiplying Force • Terrorists increase effectiveness by applying explosive technology to weapons. • Middle Eastern type of military-style weapon • Thermobaric bomb • Mini-nuke • Force multipliers enhance destructive power while innovation is used to achieve shock and surprise. • Purpose of a terrorist attack – send a message of chaos and destruction to a larger audience. • Victims are not the target; they are killed to send a message.

10. Technology • Terrorism is influenced by technology • Cyberterrorism • Cyberterrorists threaten to interrupt or confuse the flow of information. • Cyberterrorism refers to use of computers to attack technological targets of physical attacks on computer networks. • Targets for cyberterrorism: • Computers • Computer networks • Information storage and retrieval systems • There has been a sharp rise in such attacks, with the Internet providing the vehicle for launching most of the strikes.

11. WMD: Biological Agents • Weapons of Mass Destruction – WMD – are biological arsenals containing bacterial and viral weapons. • Microbes weaponized to increase their ability to kill • Difficult to control but relatively easy to produce • Biological agents include: • Natural poisons or toxins • Viruses • Bacteria • Plagues • Most threatening according to CDC are: • Smallpox • Anthrax • Plague • Botulism • Tularemia • Hemorrhagic fever

12. WMD: Biological Agents • Two biological attacks in America • 1984 religious group in Oregon • Bacteria on a salad bar • Elect religious followers to local office • Anthrax in the wake of 9-11 • Two tabloid writers infected thru the mail • Followed by numerous anthrax attacks throughout the United States • The Commission on the Prevention of weapons of Mass Destruction Proliferation and Terrorism (2010) found that the United States still had no structure in place to respond to a biological attack.

13. WMD: Chemical and Radiological Weapons • Forms of chemical alterations include: • Radiological poisoning and “dirty” radioactive devices • Chemicals: • Generally easier to deliver than biological weapons • Faster acting • Radiological devices: • Slower than most chemicals • Longer lasting • Can be spread like chemicals

14. WMD: Chemical and Radiological Weapons • Four types of chemical agents: • Nerve agents • Ingestion, respiration, or contact • Blood agents • Absorbed through the respiratory system • Choking agents • Absorbed through the respiratory system • Blistering agents • Burn skin and internal tissue areas upon contact

15. WMD: Chemical and Radiological Weapons • Chemicals are attractive to terrorists. • Easy to control • Users can avoid area they attack • Chemical weapons are problematic. • Delivery mechanism • Need for large quantities of chemicals • Chemicals can be neutralized by weather patterns, air, and water. • Dirty bomb • Explosive used to spread a chemical or radioactive agent around a large area • Drawback of the dirty bomb • The heat produced by the explosion may destroy the chemicals attached to the bomb

16. WMD: Nuclear Weapons • Nuclear weapons • Available on the black market from sources in the former Soviet Union. • It is much easier for terrorists to use a conventional weapon or to spread chemicals than to build a nuclear weapon. • The U.S. Congress has designated a site in Nevada as the repository for all the radioactive waste used in America’s nuclear power plants, and all this material must be shipped across the country. • This nuclear waste is a ready-made dirty bomb

17. WMD: Nuclear Weapons • Nuclear terrorism: • Two methods for obtaining a nuclear device: • Highly Enriched Uranium (HEU) • Plutonium • Levi: • The United States is not ready for an attack. • Problems associated with terrorist’s attempts to obtain a weapon: • Sophisticated security mechanisms • National arsenals are secured • Weapons are heavy and difficult to transport • The United States should approach nuclear terrorism in two manners: • debunking popular myths and focusing on a comprehensive approach to a terrorist group and all its activities; • revamp defense systems.

18. WMD • WMD …. aninternational problem • All countries should encourage their nuclear companies to control their trade. • Prohibit sales of nuclear goods to those countries that sponsor or support terrorism. • For example Uzbekistan, the biggest exporter of nuclear materials (uranium) and fuels (natural gas, petroleum), must regulate their nuclear industry.

19. The Media as A Force Multiplier • Governments and terrorists benefit from media portrayal of terrorist activity. • Everyone involved in terrorist conflict tries to manipulate images of terrorist activities. • Continuous reporting amplifies the aura of small groups • Striking power of the group is magnified • Wilkins: terrorists try to multiply force through communication

20. The Media as A Force Multiplier • Nacos: Most terrorist groups have objectives beyond publicity • Groups want recognition • Wolfsfeld: Media victories are crucial for terrorism • How battles are reported as important as battlefield combat • Neither side wants to be portrayed as aggressor • Media primary tool for demonizing the enemy • Terrorist groups will attempt to portray respectability in all forms of media.

21. The Media as A Force Multiplier • All forms of media can be used to multiply force. • Internet is gaining attention of security forces • Online communication brings measure of freedom when media is heavily controlled • Emerging as a major source of information • Krasnoboka: The Internet does not have an overwhelming impact in democratic countries, but it is a powerful tool for opposition forces in authoritarian régimes. • Movies assist terrorism and distort issues • Create popular images of propaganda • Responsible for strong emotional projections • Presents another venue for examination, for both assisting terrorism and distorting issues

22. Economic Targeting and Transnational Attacks • Transnational support or operations can be used as a force multiplier. • Striking transnational or international economic targets increases the effectiveness of terrorist operations. • Three types of transnational attacks: • Tourism • Energy • Shipping

23. Economic Targeting and Transnational Attacks • Tourism • Attacks on tourism have a negative economic consequences (ETA). • Energy • Interest in oil and gas production • Fossil fuels present tempting targets. • Represent power and strengths of industrialized world. • Strikes against oil refineries or transfer facilities have economic impact on the West. • Examples: Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan

24. Economic Targeting and Transnational Attacks • Endemic terrorism • Form of violence occurring in Africa where arbitrary national boundaries have been drawn through ethnic and tribal divisions • Niger Delta • Oil plays crucial role • Used to fund endemic terrorism and corrupt governments • Becomes target for those who cannot control production • Oil companies investing in the area have greater incentive to focus on security than poverty engulfing the region. • If poverty, endemic terrorism and criminalized policies are not addressed it will: • Become base for emergence of new international terrorist groups • Provide resources for training and eluding detection

25. Economic Targeting and Transnational Attacks • Transportation • Provide tempting economic target as they produce mass casualties with minimal effort. • Protection of transportation is very expensive. • Major feature of homeland security • Critics of homeland security policies argue that ports remain unsecured due to costs of increased protection. • Attacks on aviation, shipping and transportation increase cost of security.

26. Suicide Attacks – Conflicting Opinions • Gambetta’s three types of suicide attacks: • Suicide in warfare • Suicide for a principle without killing others • Suicide terrorism • Altruistic suicide: suicide terrorists frequently believe they are sacrificing their lives for a greater good. • Pape: • Attackers are so diverse, it may not be possible to find a single profile. • Suicide terrorism should be considered as a strategic tool. • Suicide terrorism gives a small group the power to coerce large governments. • Suicide terrorists tend to be more lethal than other types of attacks. • They strike greater fear in the target audience. • Each attack hints at future horrific violence. • It is a strategy designed to multiply expectations of political victory.

27. Suicide Attacks – Conflicting Opinions • Theory of suicide terrorism • Pape: • Three factors must be in place prior to a suicide terror campaign: • Nationalistic or ethnic group must be resisting the occupation of a foreign power. • Foreign power must represent a democratic government whose voters will not allow indiscriminate slaughter and total repression of the people in occupied area. • Difference in religions of the occupying power and the people living under occupation.

28. Suicide Attacks – Conflicting Opinions • Suicide terrorism is not caused by a single religion; it is caused by differences between two religions. • Pape’s evidence from case studies: • Israeli occupation of the Shi’ite areas of Lebanon • The Sinhalese (Buddhist) control of the Tamil (Hindu) region of Sri Lanka • The fighting between Sunni Kurds and Sunni Turks in Eastern Turkey • The Indian (Hindu) struggle with the occupied Sikhs

29. Models for Suicide Bombing • Tosini : • Suicide bombings are based on a strategic logic; a rational choice perspective. • This neglects the study of the social structure and culture of the group engaged in suicide terrorism. • Wade and Reiter: • Suicide attacks are not used mainly against democracies. • Muslim states suffer more suicide attacks than Western democracies. • Gunaratna: • All suicide bombing attacks have three things in common: • Secrecy • Reconnaissance • Rehearsal