VIOLENT AND/OR SEXUAL OFFENDING (KEY ISSUES & DEBATES, PART 2) FORENSIC & APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

1. VIOLENT AND/OR SEXUAL OFFENDING (KEY ISSUES & DEBATES, PART 2)FORENSIC & APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Dr Ann Henry Tue 20th November 2012

2. Last Lecture • Risk Assessment (brief overview) • Theories of crime • Sexual Offending – paedophiles & child molestation

3. Lecture overview • Sexual Offending (part 2) – Rapists • Violent Offending (brief outline)

4. Definitions of Rape • Howitt (2012) defines rape as: • Unwanted penetration of the vagina, anus or mouth of another person. • This means that women who abuse children or adults are covered by the most recent Sexual Offences Act (2003) • Statutory rape is penile penetration of any child below the age of consent to sexual intercourse • Issue of ‘consent’ has been controversial

5. Legal Aspects • Sexual Offences Act (2003) includes a legal definition of ‘consent’ • Active consent of the parties, free from factors that might mitigate against the freely given choice such as threats of violence, drugs, alcohol or being asleep. • No longer sufficient for someone to ‘assume’ that consent had been given. • New approach is based on presumption that consent had ‘NOT’ been given.

6. Frequency of Rape • Difficult to assess frequency of rape as much under reporting (dark figure of unreported crime • Estimated between 75-95% of rapes are not reported to the police (Her Majesty’s Inspector of Constabulary, 2007)

7. Frequency of rape • Occupational police culture that treats with suspicion allegations of rape (Reiner, 2000) • Controversy of over how many allegations of rape are false (between 1%-50% in various studies (Rumney, 2006)

8. Frequency of rape • Hence, the frequency of rape cannot be assessed with certainty. • British Crime Surveys – random surveys of households which attempts to assess the rate of crime, including those not reported to the police. • 4 women in a 1,000 described incidents that could be classified as rape in previous year

9. British Crime Surveys • 49 women in 1,000 claimed to have been raped since age of 16 years. • 9 women in 1,000 claimed to have suffered some form of sexual assault victimisation in the previous year • 97 women in 1,000 had suffered some form of sexual assault since the age of 16

10. British crime survey • Victims of rape usually know the rapist • 45% of rapists were the women’s current partner • 16% were acquaintances • 11% were ex-partners • 11% were dates • 10% were other intimates • Women raped by a stranger more likely to report it to the police (36% agreed in survey, whereas only 8% reported rape by known man) • Howitt (2012)

11. Home Office (2010)

12. Sex offenders as specialists/ generalists? • General Theory of Crime (Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990) • Argues that offending is a manifestation of a broader & more pervasive antisocial character which involves not just crime, but other similar behaviours. • E.g. employment instability, absenteeism from work, alcohol & drug abuse, cigarettes, irresponsible driving, marital instability, truancy & unprotected sex.

13. Specialist sex offenders • Harris, Mazerolle & Knight (2009) • Argues that sex offenders largely specialise in sexual crimes & do not engage in other types of activity. • They argue that there is an ‘implicit’ assumption that those who commit sex offences are not the same as non-sexual offenders.

14. generalist or specialist sex offenders? • Leclerc, Cale & Proulx (2007) • Argue that sex offenders include both ‘generalists’ and ‘specialists’ • Case for generalists is compelling e.g. previous histories of non-sexual offending is common amongst sex offenders • When they reoffend, it’s likely to be for a non-sexual offence.

15. generalist or specialist sex offenders? • Harris et al (2009) found that – • There is a group of generalist (versatile) sex offenders – more likely to show signs of ‘psychopathy’ • There is a group of ‘specialist’ sex offenders who are likely to show emotional congruence with children,, preference of male victims, victims known to them & sexual preoccupation.

16. generalist or specialist sex offenders? • Harris et al (2009) • Rapists are ‘generalist’ offenders • Child molesters are ‘specialist’ offenders • Study based on sample of 572 sex offenders in Massachusetts between 1959- 1984. • Considered a ‘specialist’ if the majority of their crimes are of a particular type. • Within their sample, they found that ‘specialist’ rapists were rare, but specialist child molesters were more common.

17. Victim category cross-over • Cross-over is the extent to which a sex offender offends against victims in a variety of categories. E.g. adult women, girl children, boy children. • The more the cross-over, the harder to explain the sexual offending in terms of different patterns of conditioning or social learning. • Also harder to predict future sexual offending.

18. Victim category cross-over • Cann, Friednship & Gozna (2007) • Looked at cross-over of sexual offenders in terms of victim age, gender & relationship to offender • Sample – 1,345 adult male sex offenders who had offended against multiple victims & sentenced to min of 4 years. • Found 25% of offenders showed cross-over on a min of 1 dimension ( • Cross-over offenders higher risk of re-offending according to Static-99 (risk assessment)

19. YouNG Sex offenders • Childhood abuse commoner in sex offenders • Rape often associated with anger • Worling (1995) adolescent sex offender. • Those who offended against women rather than peers had experienced more physical &/or sexual abuse as children. • Those sexually abused by men as children, lead to abuse against younger children • Victims of female sexual abuse tended to become offenders against peers and older women.

20. Young Sex Offenders • Haapasalo & Kankkonen (1997) • Self-reported experiences of childhood abuse in men whose victims were over 18 years • Compared with violent offenders with no record of abuse. • Matched on number of family problems, being in care, parental divorce, parents who were substance abusers etc.

21. Young sex offenders • Haapasalo & Kankkonen (1997) • Found that sex offenders • claimed to have experienced more psychological (verbal) abuse e.g. yelling, threatening, ridiculing etc. • Experienced psychological rejection & isolation was more common • Parents more openly hostile & negative towards them as children • Tended to be ignored, siblings favoured • Were locked up in closed environments • Mother/ father belittled them, did shameful things to them • Didn’t want them near them etc.

22. Patterns in rape • Different characteristics in rape behaviour • Australian study have explored what happens during the rape (e.g. type of penetration (vaginal, oral, anal), language used in assaults (e.g. caring, abusive, angry, revenge). McCabe & Wauchope (2005)

23. Patterns in rape • Canter et al (2003) • British study explored the verbatim transcripts made by rape victims & classified the rape characteristics as: • Control- about a tenth of rapes (victim bound or gagged or blindfolded, weapon used etc) • Theft – about a twentieth of rapes (good demanded & stolen from the victim) • Involvement – about a third of rapes (victim complimented about her appearance & kissed & implies that he knows the victim) • Hostility – about a quarter of rapes ( victims clothing removed in violent manner, victim threatened, attempted anal penetration, victim demeaned or verbally insulted) • Some rapes showed mixed patterns

24. Types of rapists • Power-assurance rapist • Power-assertive rapist • Anger-retaliatory rapist • Anger-excitement rapist

25. Power assurance rapists • Howitt (1991a) argues that sexual deprivation is not an essential component of rape • Power-assurance rapist is the most common type • Rape deals with insecurities about masculinity • Rape only provides short term reassurance about masculinity, so needs to rape again • Force is not great & threats may be involved, but weapon not used • Rape is planned – prior surveillance of victim • If victim is passive enough, sexual fantasies might be expressed during rape • Trophy items of clothing might be taken for future masturbation

26. Power assertive rapists • Howitt (1991a) • Offender is usually sexually confident • Rape expresses his virility & sexuality & power over women • Victims may be found in social locations e.g. discos, pubs or parties • Initially his manner might be friendly, but changes very quickly • Violence is extreme, especially in later stages • Offences may be scattered & irregular in terms of frequency

27. ANGER-RETALIATORY RAPIST • Howitt (1991a) • High levels of anger towards women • Involves short intense attacks (blitz) • Often a similarity between the victim & the woman he has the grudge against • Attacks may be fairly regular as a consequence of the build-up of anger

28. Anger-excitement rapist • Howitt (1991a) • Least common type • Rapist gains pleasure & sexual excitement from the distress of the victim • Infliction of pain is common & high levels of violence. Victim may be killed & torture is common • Careful, methodical planning • Will bring blindfold, gags & ropes to the rape • Victims are usually total strangers to offender • Photographs & video recordings might be taken • Attacks are usually irregular

29. Rape Myths • Burt (1980) work on cultural myths concerning rape • She develop the ‘Rape Myth Acceptance Scale’ • Based on victim-blaming & notions that women deserve to be or want to be raped • E.g. “if a girl engages in necking or petting & she lets things get out of hand, it’s her own fault if her partner forces sex on her” • “ if a girl gets drunk at a party & has sex with a man she’s just met there, she’s fair game for other males at the party who want to have sex with her” • “ a woman who is stuck up & thinks she is too good to talk to guys on the street, deserves to be taught a lesson”

30. Socio-cultural factors • Hall & Barongan (1997) • Explored rape statistics in 50 states in the USA • Cultural spillover – measured in terms of ‘Legitimate Violence Index e.g. acceptance of corporal punishment in schools • Gender inequality – economic, legal & political status of women e.g. proportion of the state’s senate that were women, average income of employed men & women • Social disorganisation- stability of population e.g. divorce, lone parent families & religiosity.

31. Sexual fantasy & sexual offending • Conflicting evidence of the role played by sexual fantasies & sexual offending. • Williams et al (2009) found that rates of sexual fantasies in offender & non-offender populations were similar (using university students) • Maniglio (2010) did a systematic review of 7 studies involving 171 sexual murderers. Concluded that sexual fantasies might lead to sexual murder when the offender had a traumatic early life experiences and/or more extreme social/ sexual dysfunctions.

32. THEORIES OF RAPE • FEMINIST THEORY • Ellis (1989) argues that rape is built into the gender structure of society • Rape is likely to be associated with disparities in social status & power • Rape motivated primarily by desire for power & dominance, rather than desire for sex • Rapists hold more rape-prone attitudes to women than no-rapists – but not supported by recent research.

33. Theories of rape • Social learning theory • That rapists learn to be rapists • Ellis argues that pornography is key factor in this theory • Rapists hold more favourable attitudes to rape & to violence than other men

34. Theories of rape • Evolutionary theory • Adaptive transmission of one’s genetic material to the next generation • Forced copulations should impregnate victims • Rape victims primarily of reproductive age • Victim should vigorously resist rapist • Rapist should be less likely than other males to attract voluntary sex partners

35. Violent Offending • Crime data & statistics • Types of violent crime • Effects of media on violent crime

36. Violent Offending • Explanations of violent crime • Sociological • Psychological • Biological

37. Violent cRIME • Gender differences • Domestic violence

38. Lecture summary • Sexual Offending (part 2) – Rapists • Violent Offending (brief outline) • I will prepare more detailed slides on violent offending & e-mail them to Graham Hole