Qualitative Research Design

1. Qualitative Research Design

2. Questions • What are the philosophical assumptions that underpin this approach? i.e., what is the nature of the research? • What is the methodological basis of this approach? i.e., how will it be operationalised ?

3. Methodological questions • preferred approaches/key aspects of research design • preferred methods of data collection: • sampling • methods of obtaining data • preferred approaches to handling data: • analysis • maintaining rigour

4. Views of reality Fixed, Objective Reality • logical and empirical evidence: • e.g., experiments, surveys, epidemiology; experimental action research ('action science'); experimental case studies Multiple, Subjective Realities • understanding and interpretation: • e.g., ethnography, phenomenology, grounded theory, collaborative action research, some case study approaches Mutual, Constructed Realities • dialect and reflection: • e.g., constructivism, co-operative inquiry, feminist research, participative action research, some case study approaches

5. Research design Fixed • research question, hypothesis, sample, instrument and analysis all specified clearly at the outset; do not change: • e.g., experiments, surveys, epidemiology, some experimental case studies Flexible • some aspects planned in advance, others develop during study: • e.g., ethnography, phenomenology, some action research (including experimental), case studies Responsive • minimum advance planning, must show links between data and emerging design: • e.g., grounded theory, constructivism, co-operative inquiry, feminist research, participative action research, some case study approaches

6. Sampling 1 Pre-Determined • for representativeness and statistical validity (random, quota sample etc; for experiments, surveys, epidemiology) Representativeness: depends on the research question the study is designed to answer. ‘If a given experience is possible, it is also subject to universalization’ (Haugh 1987) • for relevance and assumed understanding of phenomenon under review • selective and purposeful samples identified at start of study; e.g., in some case studies; cooperative inquiry; ethnography; phenomenology • for pragmatic reasons • e.g., for ethical approval, to delimit time period (e.g., for courses of study, funding bodies)

7. 2 Responsive • for reasons of participation, emergent theory-building or mutual sharing, theoretical sampling; 'serial and contingent', e.g., in grounded theory, constructivism, co-operative inquiry 3 Cyclical • clearly defined patterns and phases for specifying and drawing samples, action research, some case studies, constructivist evaluations

8. Define the question, the participants, the process and your expectations. • Delimit the boundaries of the question. • Be clear which ‘people’ you are concerned with. • What exactly are you intending to do? • What do you expect to be said, to appear or to happen? • Be clear on starting point. Big ‘Q' methodology: participant led or bottom-up; open-ended & flexible.

9. Issues in qualitative research • Developing questions: conceptualization as an ongoing process. • Variables that "grow“. • Sampling: • "Snowball sampling", negative case analysis, theoretical sampling, gaining access & developing relationship. • Producing data using recursive process of gathering maximum information from numerous sources: • Type of data: • Naturalistic data, minimizes data reduction- comprehensive record of participants’ words & actions. • Data analysis as ongoing process • Issues of validity and reliability • Ethical issues, e.g., role conflict of the researcher.

10. Methodologies and traditions in qualitative research • Grounded theory • Phenomenology & Interpretative phenomenological analysis • Ethnography • Discourse analysis • Conversation analysis • Interpretive Interaction • Narrative psychology • Feminist Postmodernism • Hermeneutics • …

11. Research Design and Data Collection Strategies Eisner 1991: a "paucity of methodological prescriptions" for qualitative research, as premium placed on the strengths of the researcher rather than on standardization. Lincoln and Guba 1985 - detailed outline for the design of naturalistic inquiry: 1. Determine a focus for the inquiry. 2. Determine the fit of the research paradigm to the research focus. 3. Determine where and from whom data will be collected. 4. Determine what the successive phases of the inquiry will be. 5. Determine what additional instrumentation may be used, beyond the researcher as the human instrument. 6. Plan data collection and recording modes. 7. Plan which data analysis procedures will be used. 8. Plan the logistics of data collection, including scheduling and budgeting. 9. Plan the techniques that will be used to determine trustworthiness.

12. Sampling strategies for qualitative researchers Qualitative inquiry uses purposeful sampling Patton 1990 - 16 types of purposeful sampling, Lincoln and Guba (1985)- maximum variation sampling: shared patterns that cut across cases.

13. Three types of sampling error: • distortions caused by insufficient breadth in sampling; • distortions introduced by changes over time; • distortions caused by lack of depth in data collection at each site.

14. Data Collection Techniques 2 main forms: Interviews. Observation.

15. Interviews • Primary strategy, or in conjunction with observation, document analysis, or other techniques. • uses open-ended questions that allow for individual variations. Three types: 1) informal, conversational; 2) semi-structured; and 3) standardized, open-ended. Interview guide or "schedule" - list of questions or general to be explored during each interview. Recording Data. • written notes or recorder

16. Observations Observation of participants in the context of a natural scene. • observational data used for the purpose of description • leads to deeper understandings than interviews alone • skilled observer is trained in the process of monitoring both verbal and nonverbal cues, and in the use of concrete, unambiguous, descriptive language.

17. Several observation strategies available: • watch from outside, without being observed. • maintain a passive presence. • engage in limited interaction. • more active control over the observation. • act as a full participant in the situation.

18. Advantages, disadvantages and concerns attached to each strategy: • presence of an observer introduces a distortion of the natural scene • Critical decisions dependent on the unique set of questions and resources brought to each study • legal and ethical responsibilities. Recording Data. • Field notes, may also use photographs, videotapes, and audio tapes.

19. Other Sources of Data Analysis of documents, hermeneutic inquiry. Deciding When to Stop Sampling Few strict guidelines. 1) exhaustion of resources; 2) emergence of regularities; 3) overextension. research goals, achieve depth through triangulation of data sources, greater breadth through examination of a variety of sampling sites.