Chapter 2 PSYCHOLOGICAL METHODS

1. Chapter 2PSYCHOLOGICAL METHODS Section 1:Conducting Research Section 2:Surveys, Samples, and Populations Section 3:Methods of Observation Section 4:The Experimental Method Section 5:Ethical Issues

2. Chapter 2 Conducting Research (general info) • Psychology is an experimental science • Assumptions must be supported by evidence • Procedures consists of five steps: • Forming a research question • Forming a hypothesis • Testing the hypothesis • Analyzing the results • Drawing conclusions

3. Chapter 2 Section 1: Conducting Research Form a question (posing a question based on daily experience, psychological theory or common knowledge) STEPS IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH • Form a question from daily experience • Questions should be based on behavior • People learn from observing others • Some questions come from folklore and common knowledge • “Two heads are better than one” “Opposites attract” “Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder.”

4. Chapter 2 Form a hypothesis (making an educated guess) • An educated guess • A hypothesis in the form of an “if-then” statement • “If-then” reasoning is an example of social scientific reasoning

5. Chapter 2 Test the hypothesis (examining the evidence through any of a variety of means) • Psychological knowledge rests on carefully examined human experience • A hypothesis cannot be considered to be correct until it has been scientifically tested and proved to be right • Psychologists do not rely on people’s opinion • Answer research questions or test hypotheses through a variety of methods.

6. Chapter 2 Section 1: Conducting Research Analyze Results (looking for patterns or relationships in the evidence) • What the findings mean • Have to figure out how to interpret the reaction • Psychologists collect a great deal more data than needed • Look for patterns and relationships in the data • They must decide which data support their hypothesis and which data do not. STEPS IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH(continued)

7. Chapter 2 Draw a conclusion (determining whether the findings support the hypothesis and adjusting it if they do not) • They draw conclusions about their questions and their hypotheses • When observations do not support hypotheses they often change the theories or beliefs from which the hypotheses were derived • Psychologists need to keep an open mind • Be willing to adjust or modify their hypotheses if their findings make it necessary to do so

8. Chapter 2 Replication • Findings may represent a random occurrence • For a study to be confirmed it must be replicated (repeated) to show the same results • If the results are repeated and obtain different results, the findings of the first study are questioned • It is important to study both males and females if the goal is to make generalizations about all members of the species.

9. Chapter 2 New Questions • Whether the findings of the research study support or contradict the hypothesis, they are likely to lead to new research questions. • Once new questions are asked, the process begins all over again.

10. Chapter 2 Classwork Questions:Answer on a separate sheet of paper • List and describe the five steps that scientists follow when conducting research. • Why is replication of a research study important?

11. Chapter 2 ACTIVITY: Analyzing Information • Locate a newspaper or magazine article that discusses the findings of a recent research study. Summarize the study, and then list two new questions that might be asked based on the findings of the study.

12. Chapter 2 Homework Practice Online • Go to http://go.hrw.com • Go to SY7 HP2 (section 1) • Complete the online quiz and print • Turn in your completed quiz

13. Chapter 2 Section 2: Surveys, Samples, and Populations Question: Why are proper sampling techniques important? • Surveys are taken to find out about people’s attitudes and behaviors directly. • Two survey methods—written questionnaires and interviewing • The findings of interviews and questionnaires are not completely accurate. • People may not answer honestly about their attitudes or behavior

14. Chapter 2 Populations and Samples • Must decide what group or groups of people they wish to examine and how they will be selected. • Target population—is the whole group you want to study or describe. • Researchers study a sample of the target population

15. Chapter 2 Selecting Samples • Samples must be selected scientifically to ensure that the samples accurately represent the populations they are supposed to represent. • Random Sample—individuals are selected by chance from the target population • Stratified sample—subgroups in the population are represented proportionally in the sample. • A random sample of 1,000 to 1,500 people will usually represent the general American population reasonably well.

16. Chapter 2 Generalizing Results • Researchers do not use a sample that represents an entire population • Researchers want to know about only one group within the population • Researchers are cautious about generalizing their findings to groups other than those from which their samples were drawn • Researchers cannot learn about the preferences of all people by studying only one group of people, such as men. • The gender of the individuals in the sample is not the only characteristic that researchers must take into account.

17. Chapter 2 Volunteer Bias • Researchers have little control over who responds to surveys or participates in research studies. • They cannot force people to complete the questionnaires. • Bias—a predisposition to a certain point of view. • People who volunteer to participate in studies often bring with them a volunteer bias. • They often have a different outlook from people who do not volunteer for research studies. • Volunteers may: be more interested, have more spare time. • Depending on what the study is about, any or all of the factors could skew the results.

18. Chapter 2 Homework Practice Online • Go to http://go.hrw.com • Go to SY7 HP2 (section 2) • Complete the online quiz and print • Turn in your completed quiz

19. Chapter 2 Methods of Observation • Everyone, at one time or another, observes other people. • We observe people as they talk, eat, work, play and interact with others and with us. • We tend to make generalizations about human behavior and human nature. • Most of our personal observations are fleeting and haphazard. • We sift through experience for things that interest us and ignore the obvious because it does not fit into our ideas about how things ought to be.

20. Chapter 2 Methods of Observation (continued) • We cannot draw scientific conclusions based only on our own unstructured observations. • Personal observations can be a starting point for our research and as the basis for the hypothesis. • Other methods of observation—the testing, case-study, longitudinal, cross-sectional, naturalistic-observation, and laboratory-observation.

21. Chapter 2 Section 3: Methods of Observation Question: What are the various methods of observation, and how is correlation used in analyzing results? • Testing Method – several types of tests measure various elements of human behavior such as abilities, interests, and personality • Intelligence test measure general learning ability • Aptitude tests measure specific abilities and special talents such as musical and mechanical skills.

22. Chapter 2 Testing Method • Some tests measure vocational interests • Personality tests measure people’s character traits and temperament. • Used to diagnose psychological problems such as anxiety and depression.

23. Chapter 2 Case-study Method • Case-study is an in-depth investigation of individuals or small groups • Researchers may: • observe or speak with individuals • Interview others who know them • Find out more about their backgrounds and personal histories

24. Chapter 2 Case Study Methods (continued) • Researchers use what they learn to generalize broader principles that apply to the larger population. • Sigmund Freud developed psychoanalytic theory largely on the basis of case studies. • Some case studies focus on rare circumstances or events.

25. Chapter 2 Case Study Method (continued) • Psychologists are cautious about generalizing from case studies, especially case studies that cannot be replicated. • Some case-studies lend themselves to some of the same pitfalls that surveys do, especially when the case studies are based on interviews with people about their past experiences.

26. Chapter 2 Homework Practice Online • Go to http://go.hrw.com • Go to SY7 HP2 (section 2) • Complete the online quiz and print • Turn in your completed quiz

27. Chapter 2 Section 3: Methods of Observation Question: What are the various methods of observation, and how is correlation used in analyzing results? METHODS OF OBSERVATION (continued) • Longitudinal Method – a group of participants are observed at intervals over an extended period of time • Longitudinal studies are • Extremely time-consuming • Tend to be expensive and risky

28. Chapter 2 METHODS OF OBSERVATION (continued) • Cross-Sectional Method – researchers compare the differences and similarities among people in different age groups at a given time • Instead of following a set of individuals over a number of years, researchers select a sample that includes people of different ages. • This method is less reliable than information from longitudinal studies.

29. Chapter 2 Section 3: Methods of Observation Question: What are the various methods of observation, and how is correlation used in analyzing results? METHODS OF OBSERVATION (continued) • Naturalistic-Observation Method – researchers observe the behavior of people or animals in their natural habitats • Psychologists try not to interfere with the organisms they are observing.

30. Chapter 2 METHODS OF OBSERVATION (continued) • Laboratory-Observation Method – participants are observed in a laboratory setting • A laboratory is any place that provides the opportunity for observation or experimentation • A laboratory to control the environment of a study

31. Chapter 2 Section 3: Methods of Observation Question: What are the various methods of observation, and how is correlation used in analyzing results? CORRELATION • Correlation measures how closely one thing is related to another • The stronger the correlation between two things, the more closely those two things are related. • Researchers look for correlations between various characteristics or traits.

32. Chapter 2 Homework Practice Online • Go to http://go.hrw.com • Go to SY7 HP2 (section 3) • Complete the online quiz and print • Turn in your completed quiz

33. Chapter 2 Section4: The Experimental Method Question: What are the purposes and elements of experiments? PURPOSES AND ELEMENTS OF EXPERIMENTS • Researchers conduct experiments to learn about cause and effect. • Participants receive what is called a treatment • Researchers carefully observe the participants to determine how the treatment influences their behavior (if at all). • Conditions created in an experiment may not accurately reflect conditions in real life.

34. Chapter 2 Independent and dependent variables • Elements of experiments include independent and dependent variables, experimental and control groups, and the placebo effect. • Variables—factors that can vary, or change • Independent variables—factor that researchers manipulate so that they can determine its effect. • Dependent variables—depends on something—the independent variable

35. Chapter 2 Experimental and Control Groups • Experimental group—receive the treatment • Control group—do not receive the treatment • All other conditions are held constant for both the experimental and control groups. • When both types are used it is called a controlled experiment

36. Chapter 2 The Placebo Effect • Placebo—a substance or treatment that has no effect apart from a person’s belief in it.

37. Chapter 2 Single-Blind Studies/Double-blind Studies • Single-Blind—Participants are unaware of the type of treatment they are receiving • Double-Blind—a study in which both participants and experimenters are unaware of who receives the treatment. • Double-blind studies are required by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) before new drugs can be put on the market.

38. Chapter 2 Homework Practice Online • Go to http://go.hrw.com • Go to SY7 HP2 (section 4) • Complete the online quiz and print • Turn in your completed quiz

39. Chapter 2 Section 5: Ethical Issues Question: How are ethical issues involved in psychological research? ETHICAL ISSUES AND RESEARCH • Protect study participants from harm • Maintain the scientific integrity of the study • Promote the dignity of the individual • Foster human welfare

40. Chapter 2 ETHICAL ISSUES AND RESEARCH • Confidentiality • Treat the records of research participants and clients as confidential • People are more likely to disclose true information and feelings when they know that what they say will remain confidential • Exception: when a client reveals a plan to harm someone

41. Chapter 2 ETHICAL ISSUES AND RESEARCH • Informed Consent—means that people agree, or consent to participate in a research study only after they have been given a general overview of the research and have been given the choice of whether or not to participate.

42. Chapter 2 ETHICAL ISSUES AND RESEARCH • Deception • Some psychological experiments cannot be run without deceiving people. • Example—new drug experiments

43. Chapter 2 Deception (continued) • Only under specific conditions: • When they believe that the benefits of the research outweigh its potential harm • When they believe that the individuals would have been willing to participate if they had understood the benefits of the research • When participants receive an explanation of the study after it has occurred

44. Chapter 2 Homework Practice Online • Go to http://go.hrw.com • Go to SY7 HP2 (section 5) • Complete the online quiz and print • Turn in your completed quiz

45. Chapter 2 Sources for Research Questions Daily Experience Psychological Theory Folklore and Common Knowledge Question: How are research questions formed?