Nineteenth Century Political Philosophy

1. Nineteenth Century Political Philosophy The development of Romanticism

2. Political Liberalism • Associated with England and Low Countries • Protestant • Appreciates Work ethic • Commerce and Industry • Tolerant • Wars over religion are just silly • Respect for Rights of Property • Individualistic • Social mobility possible • Role of education to improve one’s lot in life • Based on Reason and Rational thought • John Locke, George Berkeley, David Hume

3. RomanticismPassion over Calculation • Anti-thesis of Rational Liberalism • Anti-Industrial, Commercial • Medieval Nostalgia • Chivalry and Heroism stressed • Individualism reinterpreted • Passions rather than Intellect • Admire all strong passions • Even negative violent ones • Cult of the Hero • Nationalism encouraged • Rebellions justifiable • War justifiable in defence of ‘Liberty’ • Byron, Rousseau, Kant, Fichte, Nietzsche • Identified with Germany

4. Romanticism Rousseau Kant Nationalism Schopenhauer Hegel Nietzsche

5. Jean Jacques Rousseau 1712 – 1778“Man is born free and everywhere he is in chains” • Father of Romantic Movement • Noble Savage • Opponent of Progress and Industrialisation • Makes government powerful • Crushes individuals • Material benefits no match for human friendship/emotions • Politics and morality cannot be separated • Learn by experience • Social Contract • Bible of French Revolution

6. Rousseau’s Social Contract • Justifies totalitarianism • Democracy best in small states • Aristocracy best in medium states • Monarchy best in large states • Big fan of City States • Sparta over Athens • The General Will of the people is easily recognisable • Equality over liberty • Each of us puts his person under the supreme direction of the general will • The general will is always right • Every man governed by self interest • Self-interest good for the individual • Self-interest is also good for the community • Lack of respect for private property • The State is master of all their goods

7. Immanuel Kant1724 - 1804 • German Idealist • Romanticist • Building block for Hegel • Pedantic University Professor • Believed in Democracy • Supported French Revolution up to Terror • Advocated Federation of free states who outlaw war – as war is utterly irrational • Prussian – but not a nationalist • Often argued with authorities over some of his more liberal ideas

8. Immanuel Kant’s Ideas • Critique of knowledge as a means of reaching philosophical conclusions • Mind more important than matter • “There can be nothing more dreadful than that the actions of a man should be subject to the will of another” • Rights of Man ideals • Moral worth exists only when a man acts from a sense of duty • Two imperatives driving the will of humans • Hypothetical Imperative • You must do so and so if you wish to achieve such and such • Categorical Imperative • Act as if the maxim of your action were to become a general natural law • Ie – if it were applied by everybody would it work • Eg it is wrong to borrow money because if we all did, there would be no money to borrow

9. Georg Hegel1770 - 1831 • Prussian University Professor • Protestant • 1806 Jena • Nothing is completely real except the whole (like a complex organism) • Called ‘The Absolute’ • Mr A is an uncle • Uncle means nothing without a Nephew • The Universe cannot be spherical • Spheres have a boundary • A boundary only exists when something lies outside the boundary • There is no freedom without law • In fact, freedom is the right to obey law • ‘Spirit’ is the essential historical force

10. Hegel’s Spirit • Historical development of spirit • Oriental (despotism) • One is free • Greeks & Romans (Aristocracy) • Some are free • German (Monarchy – NOT Democracy) • All are free • The monarch embodies the will of all • ‘The State is the idea of Spirit in the external manifestation of human Will and its freedom’ • “The German Spirit is the spirit of the new world” • Rewrites German History • Not barbarians but the true spirit of man fighting the effete Romans • Protestant and United Prussia praised over Catholic and disunited Austrians

11. Nations and Individuals in Hegel’s World • Nations • Nations are the principle of historical development • A particular nation shows the true spirit • Germany • Individuals • A few world historically important individuals who embody true spirit • Alexander, Caesar, Napoleon • War allows for the spirit to be purely represented

12. Artur Schopenhauer1788 - 1860 • Danzig, Prussia • Dark, philosophical pessimist • Influenced by Plato, Kant, The Vedas, Goethe • Ascetic Mystic combined with Hellenism • The World as Will and Idea 1818 • Emphasizes the role of ‘Will’ • The Primacy of the Will • As the creative but irrational force of human nature • Ethically evil (Pessimistic) • Only Art can withstand the role of Will • Personally dislikes Hegel despite some philosophical similarities • Influences Nietzche

13. Friedrich Nietszche1844 - 1900 • Saxony • Son of Lutheran Pastor • University of Basel • 1870 Franco Prussian War • Medical orderly • Retires in ill health • Ill health plagues Nietszche for rest of life • Insane 1888 - 1900

14. Friedrich Nietzsche’s Ideas • Admires strength of will above all else • Spartan ideals • Life is hard – the difficulties of life allows us to appreciate the best parts of life • Suffering amplifies the pleasure • Believes in Heroes (individuals over the State) • UberMensch – Superman • Masses can suffer to produce a great man • Napoleon • Anti-Democratic & Anti-Liberal • All are not equal • Democracy leads to mediocrity • Believes in the superiority of the Aristocrat • Not a Nationalist • Wants an international super-aristocracy to guide humanity • Anti-Christian • Dislikes submission to a Higher Order • Prefers old testament to new testament • Not anti-semitic