Sociology

1. Sociology Semester Exam Review

2. What Is Sociology? “...The systematic study of human society ” • Systematic • Scientific discipline that focuses attention on patterns of behavior • Human society • Group behavior is primary focus; how groups influence individuals and vice versa • At the “heart of sociology” • The sociological perspective which offers a unique view of society

3. The Sociological PerspectivePeter Berger • Seeing the general in the particular • Sociologists identify general social patterns in the behavior of particular individuals. • Seeing the strange in the familiar • Giving up the idea that human behavior is simply a matter of what people decide to do • Understanding that society shapes our lives

4. Sociological Perspective and Sociological Imagination C. Wright Mills

5. C. Wright Mills’Sociological Imagination • The power of the sociological perspective lies not just in changing individual lives but in transforming society. • Society, not people’s personal failings, is the cause of social problems. • The sociological imagination transforms personal troubles into public issues.

6. Sociological Theory • Theory: a statement of how and why facts are related • Explains social behavior to the real world • Theoretical paradigm: A set of fundamental assumptions that guides thinking • Structural-functional • Social-conflict • Symbolic-interaction

7. Structural-Functional Theory A theoretical framework in which society is viewed as a whole unit, composed of interrelated parts, each with a function that, when fulfilled, contributes to society’s equilibrium Also known as functionalism and structural functionalism

8. Functional Analysis Focuses on Social Structure and Social Function Structure- stable pattern of behavior Function: consequences of patterns for operation of society Argues that Social Order is based on Social Consensus

9. Social Functions Manifest Functions- Intended Latent Functions- Unintended Dysfunctions- Problematic

10. Critical Evaluations of Functional Analysis Tends to be conservative Tends to dismiss change-”systems” Overlooks the negative

11. Structural-Functional Paradigm • The basics • A macro-level orientation, concerned with broad patterns that shape society as a whole • Views society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability • Key elements: • Social structure refers to any relatively stable patterns of social behavior found in social institutions. • Social function refers to the consequences for the operation of society as a whole.

12. Conflict Theory A theoretical framework in which society is viewed as being composed of groups competing for scarce resources.

13. Conflict Theory Focuses on Social Tension and Social Change Is macro level orientation Argues that Social Order is maintained by direct or indirect exercise of power “Marginality”-those on the fringe of society Originated from the work of Karl Marx

14. Social-Conflict Paradigm • The basics: • A macro-oriented paradigm • Views society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and social change • Key elements: • Society is structured in ways to benefit a few at the expense of the majority. • Factors such as race, sex, class, and age are linked to social inequality. • Dominant group vs. disadvantaged group relations

15. Symbolic-Interaction Theory A theoretical perspective that focuses on how people use symbols to establish meaning, develop their views of the world, and communicate with one another.

16. Interactionism Focuses on details of everyday life and interaction between people, and on how meaning is assigned to human interaction Is micro level orientation Argues that society responds through symbolic interaction Originated from the studies of Max Weber and George Herbert Mead

17. Who’s Who in the Symbolic-Interaction Paradigm • Max Weber • Understanding a setting from the people in it • George Herbert Mead • How we build personalities from social experience • Erving Goffman • Dramaturgical analysis • George Homans & Peter Blau • Social-exchange analysis

18. Critical Evaluation • Structural-Functional • Too broad, ignores inequalities of social class, race & gender, focuses on stability at the expense of conflict • Social-Conflict • Too broad, ignores how shared values and mutual interdependence unify society, pursues political goals • Symbolic-Interaction • Ignores larger social structures, effects of culture, factors such as class, gender & race

19. Sociological Investigation A logical system that derives knowledge From direct, systematic observation

20. Three Frameworks for Sociological Investigation • Scientific sociology • The study of society based on systematic observation of social behavior • Empirical evidence–Information we can verify with our senses • Interpretive sociology • The study of society that focuses on the meanings people attach to their social world • Critical sociology • The study of society that focuses on the need for change

21. Causation • Cause and effect • A relationship in which change in one variable causes change in another (Hard to establish) • Correlation • A relationship by which two or more variables change together (direct/inverse- positive/negative) • Spurious correlation • An apparent, though false, relationship between two or more variables caused by some other variable • Types of variables • Independent: The variable that causes the change • Dependent: The variable that changes (its value depends upon the independent variable)

22. Variables • Dependent Variable- The variable that changes due to the • Independent Variable- the variable that causes the change • Dependent: Grade on the Exam • Independent(s): The amount of time studying, reading level, energy level, grades on previous tests, etc.

23. Spurious Correlations

24. Shoe Size & Math Skill

25. Scientific Sociology Terminology • Concepts–A mental construct that represents some part of the world in a simplified form • Variables–Concepts whose values change from case to case • Measurement–A procedure for determining the value of a variable in a specific case • Operationalizing a variable–Specifying exactly what is to be measured before assigning a value to a variable

26. Scientific Sociology Terminology • Reliability–Consistency in measurement • Does an instrument provide for a consistent measure of the subject matter? • Validity–Precision in measuring exactly what one intends to measure • Does an instrument actually measure what it sets out to measure? If measurement is not Reliable, then it can’t be Valid- but needs to be both to be of any value

27. Scientific Sociology Terminology • Objectivity • A state of personal neutrality in conducting research • Value-free research • Weber said sociologists should strive to be dispassionate and detached. • Replication • Repetition of research by other investigators • Helps limit distortion caused by personal values

28. Limitations of Scientific Sociology • Human behavior is too complex to predict precisely any individual’s actions. • The mere presence of the researcher might affect the behavior being studied. • Social patterns change. • Sociologists are part of the world they study, making value-free research difficult.

29. Miligram's Experiment • The Original Miligram Experiment (1961) • VideoSift: Online Video *Quality Control • Administered electric shocks to “Subjects”

30. Sociological Research Methods A Systematic Plan for Conducting Research • Experiment–A research method for investigating cause and effect under highly controlled conditions • Hypothesis–An unverified statement of a relationship between variables (an educated guess) • Placebo–A treatment that seems to be the same but has no effect on the experiment • “Hawthorne effect”– A change in a subject's behavior caused by the awareness of being studied

31. Control • To be certain that the change in the dependent variable was due to the exposure to the independent variable, the researcher must keep constant other factors that might intrude. • One method is to break group into experimental and control groups. • Experimental group is exposed to independent variable. • Control group is exposed to a placebo.

32. Survey ResearchA research method in which subjects respond to a series of statements or questions in a questionnaire or interview • Population • The people who are the focus of the research • Sample • The part of the population that represents the whole • Random Sample • Drawing a sample from a population so that every element of the population has an equal chance of being selected

33. Culture The values, beliefs, behavior, and material objects that together form a people’s way of life

34. Terminology • Nonmaterial culture • The intangible world of ideas created by members of a society • Material culture • The tangible things created by members of a society

35. Terminology • Culture shock • Disorientation due to the inability to make sense out of one’s surroundings • Domestic and foreign travel • Ethnocentrism • A biased “cultural yardstick”-Evaluate based on your own Culture’s standards • Cultural relativism • More accurate understanding-cultural perspective-context of the culture

36. Symbols • Anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who share a culture • Societies create new symbols all the time. • Reality for humans is found in the meaning things carry with them. • The basis of culture; makes social life possible

37. Symbols • People must be mindful that meanings vary from culture to culture. • Meanings can even vary greatly within the same groups of people. • Fur coats, Confederate flags, etc.

38. Values and Beliefs • Values • Culturally defined standards of desirability, goodness, and beauty, which serve as broad guidelines for social living. Values support beliefs. • Beliefs • Specific statements that people hold to be true. • Particular matters that individuals consider to be true or false.

39. Norms Rules and expectations by which society guides its members’ behavior • Types • Proscriptive • Should-nots, prohibited • Prescriptive • Shoulds, prescribed like medicine • Mores and Folkways • Mores (pronounced "more-rays") • Widely observed and have great moral significance • Folkways • Norms for routine and casual interaction

40. Social Control Various means by which members of society encourage conformity to norms • Guilt • A negative judgment we make about ourselves • Shame • The painful sense that others disapprove of our actions

41. Cultural Diversity • Subculture–Cultural patterns that set apart some segment of society’s population. • Counterculture–Cultural patterns that strongly oppose those widely accepted within a society.

42. Terms • Culture integration • The close relationships among various elements of a cultural system • Example: Computers and changes in our language • Culture lag • The fact that some cultural elements change more quickly than others, which might disrupt a cultural system • Example: Medical procedures and ethics • Cultural universals– Traits that are part of every known culture; includes family, funeral rites, and jokes

43. Socialization The lifelong social experience by which people develop their human potential and learn culture

44. Social Experience Socialization • The lifelong social experience by which individuals develop their human potential and learn patterns of their culture Personality • A person’s fairly consistent patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting • Could a person’s personality develop without social interaction?

45. Nature and Nurture • Biological sciences–The role of nature • Elements of society have a naturalistic root. • Social sciences–The role of nurture • Most of who and what we are as a species is learned, or social in nature. • Behaviorism • Nature or nurture? • It is both, but from a sociological perspective, nurture matters more.

46. Social Isolation Effect on nonhuman primates: Harlows’ experiments • Six months of complete isolation was enough to disturb development. Effect on children: Anna and Isabelle • Years of isolation left both children damaged and only capable of approximating a normal life after intensive rehabilitation. Genie • Somewhat less isolated, but suffered permanent disabilities

47. Theories • Freud- Id, Ego, Superego-Psycho-sexual stages • Piaget- Cognitive development • Kohlberg- Moral Reasoning • Mead/ Cooley- “Self”/ “Looking glass self”

48. Erik Erickson This theory views personality as a lifelong process (8 Stages) and success at one stage prepares us for the next challenge. • Psycho-Social stages • Critics: Not everyone confronts the challenges in the same order. • Not clear if failure to meet one challenge predicts failure in other stages • Do other cultures share Erickson’s definition of successful life?

49. Agents of Socialization • The Family • The School • The Peer Group • The Mass Media • Church • Government

50. The Family • Most important agent • A loving family produces a happy well-adjusted child. • Parental attention is very important • Bonding and encouragement • Household environment • Stimulates development • Social position • Race, religion, ethnicity, class