Background

1. Gender Dimensions of International Migration from Bangladesh and India: Socio-Economic Impact on Families Left Behind

2. Background Selected Country-wise Distribution of Annual Labour Outflows from India(2001 to 2007)

3. Statement of the problem • Men migrate - women stay behind. Migration of women has been mainly secondary as spouses or family members of principal migrants. • In temporary labour migration, women from developing countries like Bangladesh and India are engaging themselves in ever increasing numbers to ensure the subsistence of their families. • Gender permeates every aspect of migration - decision to migrate, process of migration and its consequences. • Gender perspective is essential for understanding both the causes and consequences of international migration. 

4. cont…. • Feminization of migration alters the position of men: they receive remittances from their female partners living abroad, may have to attain new family or household functions. • Reversely, when men migrate, women may have to take up men’s tasks and responsibilities, gain more freedom and a higher status in the family. • But migration may also lead to a backlash of traditionalism and a reinforcement of existing gender roles.

5. Objectives of the Study Socio-economic background of migrant families Changes and problems encountered by the families back home and their coping mechanisms Role of men and women migrants in decision-making and use of remittances Policy recommendations for the overall socio-economic development of families back home.

6. Methodology The study addressed the socio-economic impacts of migration of men and women including issues of empowerment and vulnerability. Data sources: Primary & Secondary Selected sample of 1,000 families from migration pocket areas in Delhi of India and Bangladesh (Dhaka, Satkhira & Comilla) Sampling: family back home, especially the spouses Interviews using both structured and open-ended questions & field observations Case studies Govt. Policies, official documents, report from NGO networks, publications, newspaper clippings, etc.

7. Study findings - India Family background of migrants: • Men migrants (59%) came from joint families and women migrants (54%) from nuclear families. • Majority of households are male-headed (76% men migrants & 77% of women migrants) • Number of family members of men migrants are higher • Majority of migrants were married Profile of Men and Women Migrants • Men migrants were in the older age groups & women migrants were in the younger age groups. • Official age for migration of women for work in India is 30 years. But women had migrated below the minimum age limit because pretty and young girls were in high demand in destination countries. • In many cases neither the family members nor the women migrants themselves were aware of this clause as agents filled up forms.

8. Education • 19% men migrants and 46% women migrants had completed higher secondary level education • 31% (men + women) migrants completed primary education • Migrants received formal or informal training before migration Place of origin Most migrants are from rural areas (83% men & 86% women migrants). Majority of migrants are internal migrants also, who came to Delhi in search of better job opportunities from different states of India. Determining factors • Men migrants mostly went abroad for dowry payments, capital building for business or building houses • Women migrated for the basic sustenance of family & children • 48% men & 56% women migrated due to poverty

9. 81% men and 92% women migrants migrated in search of better job opportunities/more money • 14% men & 17% women migrated due to unemployment • 18% men & 14% women migrantsmigrated due to landlessness • Women migrated due to abandonment/ divorce/ separation by husbands with children to support, pre-matured death of husband, migration of the employer who took them along and for better pay packets • Also, especially women migrants were approached by agents, which triggered them to go abroad Decision-making to migrate • 91% men migrants decided themselves • For 91% women migrants, their husbands took the decision • Parents of 49% men and 56% women migrants and 17% in-laws of women migrants play an important role

10. Obstacles or problems regarding migration • 77% women migrants faced resistance compared to 34% of the men migrants • For 42% men and 54% women migrants, their spouses were against their going abroad • For men migrants, parents (23%), siblings (14%), in-laws (8%) and 3% children objected • Women faced problems from parents (6%), in-laws (7%) and 13% siblings, while no children objected to their mothers going abroad Channels used for migration • 67% men and 86% women migrants used manpower and travel agencies as channels of migration • Women used more than one channel of migration, such as employers, companies or relatives whereas most men relied on manpower • Unfortunately, very few men and women went abroad through the formal government channel

11. Money spent for migration purpose • Women had to spend far less money than men to migrate. 46% women migrants spent less than Rs. 50,000 compared to only 21% men migrants • 24% men had spent Rs. 70,001-90,000 and above to migrate Sources of money for migration • 50% men & 46% women migrants use their own savings, loan from different places and individuals with high interest rates or mortgage and sell their assets • Mortgage of land is the most common source of money (75% men and 64% women migrants), besides selling their land (69% vs. 61%) Migrants in destination countries • 12 countries in the Middle East, South East, Europe & USA.UAE is the most popular destination for women migrants (46%) and the second most popular for men (30%). Next is Saudi Arabia which is the first choice of men (33%) and the second choice of women (34%) migrants. • The number of migrants moving to other countries is relatively small. Except for Libya; 14.9% of the men migrants chose this country.

12. Duration of stay • Men stayed longer than women migrants in destination countries • 40% of the interviewed men migrants spouses said that their husbands came back after 2 years and again went abroad Occupation • Men - plumber, factory worker, carpenter and mason. • Women migrants predominately worked as housemaids or as nurses. • In the private service sector many migrants, of both sexes, work in Monthly income • More men than women are present in the lowest (49% vs 20%) & (12% vs 3%) the highest salary scales • 37% of women migrants earned between Rs. 20,000- 29,999. 31% women migrants are earning between Rs. 30,000-39,999 monthly.

13. Flow of remittances & channels • 92% men migrants had their own bank account compared to 83% of the women migrants • Most remittances were sent through banks from where family members can draw in times of need • More women (11% vs 7%) than men, used a private channel to send money home. Usage of remittance by family members • 93% men & 83% of family members of the women migrants - family maintenance. • Education of children ( 63%) is the second purpose for family members of both sexes • A lot of families used to save for their daughter’s marriage and dowry payments (43% men & 57% women migrants) • Family members of men migrants used remittance for medical treatment (36.7%), to build a new house (38.6%) or to repay loans (35.3%) than family members of women migrants

14. Problems faced in the destination countries • Women migrants were treated more badly than men migrants by the employers - hardly had freedom to move outside the employer's residence • 81% women migrants faced isolation/confinement & 77% felt like they were treated like slaves • 98% men and 61% women got paid less than was stated in the contract. More women (80%) than men (54%) had to hand over their passports, job contracts and other relevant documents. • Exploitative working environment (96% men & 50% women migrants). Other problems that women as well as men encountered are the absence of fixed hours and long working hours (49% women & 87% men migrants). • 96% men migrants felt lack of dignity from their employers, humiliation, 91% reported misconduct/abuse by employers and 95% worked in hazardous environment .

15. Positive impacts on family members • Family members enjoyed economic solvency, increase in status and dignity (women migrants particularly), rise in educational status of children compared to the neighbourhood • Family members were providedbetter medical treatment (11.2 vs. 20%), better clothing (27.9 vs. 34.3%) and better food (35.3 vs. 25.7%). • Family members also enjoyed funds for starting a business, behavioral changes and an increase of knowledge of the outside world. • Women empowerment was reported, especially in the context of joint families with mother or mother-in-law as the head of the household and in nuclear cases where the wife of migrant was left behind with her children. Negative impacts on family members • Loneliness was reported by family members of 73% women migrants compared to 57% men migrants • Absence of proper childcare (39% women 48% men), • Problem with the schooling of children (35% men and 38% women migrants) and family feud (6% men and 3% women).

16. Problems faced by family members • 26% family members of men migrants had to wait a long time before they got their money from abroad and the monetary problems (19%). • 11% family members of women migrants encountered monetary problems. They struggled more (20%) with the pressure to repay the loans. This was not as big an issue for the other group (9%). • Lack of frequent communication with migrants abroad • Women left behind faced problems related to social security and children faced social stigmatization (14%). • Few men (spouses of women migrants) had to take care of their children, cook food and to do household chores. Coping strategies of family members • The most common strategy, used by both family members of men (55%) and women (66%) migrants is frequent communication. • Wives of men migrants often chose to live with parents. • In 2% cases of women migrants’, maids were appointed to do cooking, child care, looking after elders, etc

17. Decision-making role in the family • Men migrants were consulted on marriage of their children (86%), health and the medical treatment of family members (75%), migration of other family members (48%), education of children (8%), use of remittance (5%) & the acquisition of land/ house (7%) • Women are involved in more areas- the marriage of children (41%), migration of other family members (47%), use of remittance (46%), buying land/new property (43%)/ construction of a new house (34%) Changing role of the family members • Both the family members of men and women migrants experienced to a great extent that their decision-making power went up (76% for men and 65.7% for women family members). • Also other members were now responsible for taking the children to school (41% men and 34% women) and taking sick persons to the hospital (respectively 32.1% vs. 17%). • Especially family members of women migrants noted a change in the amount of economic work they could do (14%). Men did less economic work in the pretext of looking after home n children and to cook food.

18. Similarities & differences in Bangladesh & India study • Women migrants in both countries are younger than legally permissible age • Indian women migrants are better educated than Bangladeshi women migrants • In Bangladesh, men migrants come from urban areas & women migrants from rural areas, in India, both men and women migrants came from rural areas and were found to be internal migrants also in majority of cases • Women migrate for the basic sustenance of family members while men migrate either for better pay packets/unemployment or due to a tendency/lure for migration from both the countries • Bangladeshi migrants made the migration decision alone and less frequently faced resistance • Formal government channels are hardly ever used in both the countries

19. Migrants from both countries take out loans or sold land • Bangladeshi migrants are not always trained but Indian migrants were trained. • Saudi Arabia and UAE are the popular destinations. Libya is a common destination for Bangladeshi migrants. • Men stay abroad longer, spent more money on migration & earned more than women migrants • Occupational diversity among Indian migrants are more than Bangladeshi migrants • Indian migrants sent most of the remittances to their spouses. Bangladeshi migrants had their father, mother, brothers & children as recipients • Family members of migrants used remittances for family maintenance and education of the children. Indian families also saved for daughter’s marriage

20. Employers confiscated passport from Bangladeshi migrants and do not pay according to the contract. For Indian migrants the main problem had to do with the salary and working hours. • More women than men have to hand over their passports, job contracts and other relevant documents. Women migrants faced isolation, confinement and slavery more than men migrants. • Family members experienced an increase in economic solvency and status, better medical treatment, better clothing and better food • Migrants feel lonely & Bangladeshi families struggle with issue like divorce, remarriage and extra marital relationships. • Husbands of women migrants have a tendency to send their wives and make them work, while they would remain idle and solely depend on the remittance sent by the women with the excuse that they have to look after the household chores and children. The biggest problem which women migrants suffer is isolation from their kids, and giving proper mother care to the child. • Frequent communication is often used solution to deal with issues that arise from the absence of the migrant • Migrants are often involved in decisions that involve their families

21. Recommendations • Government to take initiatives to send migrants through proper channel, reduce expenditure incurred for migration, provide loans at low interests or interest free loans for migration, improvement in communication facilities, take necessary measures to stop physical torture against women migrants • Provide skill development training to potential migrants before going abroad • Stop corruption of the private organizations namely recruiting and travel agencies • Agencies dealing with migration should follow the approved government guidelines, illegal activities of dalals and agents who exploit the potential migrants should be curbed through vigilance and policing • Embassies abroad should provide support to migrants • Migrants should get salary according to the contract • Separate banks should be set up for migrants & proper channels for sending remittance may be arranged • Migrants need to learn the language of destination countries • Travel agencies should give more facilities to migrants • Take initiatives to bring back the women migrants as they work in most vulnerable situations without any support and cooperation

22. THANK YOU Dr. Ranjana Kumari Director Centre for Social Research (CSR) 2, Nelson Mandela Marg, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi-110070 Tel: 26899998, 26125583. Fax: 26137823 Email: info@csrindia.org Website: www.csrindia.org