Water Quality

1. Water Quality Sources of Pollutants (Primarily Agricultural)

2. Review, Last Lecture • Well protection (& potential sources of contamination) • U.S. Drought, 2012 • Water consumers • IN Water Shortage Plan • Example (Ogalla Aquifer)

3. What are the Differences? • Point source pollution: • Non-point source pollution:

4. Sources of Pollution • Point Sources Easily defined and relatively easy to control - examples include: pipes, sewage outlets, landfills • Non-Point Sources Not easily defined and difficult to regulate - examples include: farms, roads, cars, homes

5. Urban Contamination Sources

6. Plastic – it’s Everywhere • In the last 25 years, our consumption rate of plastic bags has grown from almost zero to our use of over 500,000,000,000 (that’s 500 billion) plastic bags annually … almost 1 million per minute. • The U.S. goes through 100 billion plastic shopping bags annually. An estimated 12 million barrels of oil is required to make that many plastic bags. • Four out of five grocery bags in the US are now plastic. • Plastic bags cause hundreds of thousands of birds, sea turtle and other marine animal deaths every year because these creatures mistake plastic trash for food. • Countries like China, Ireland, Australia, Bangladesh have banned or have placed restrictions on single use plastic bags.

7. Plastic in Our Oceans • GioraProskurowski, an oceanographer and a researcher at the University of Delaware, has discovered there is more plastic in the water than we thought. • Estimates are usually based on surface water measurements, Dr. Proskurowskiobserved how wind drives the debris beneath the surface. • Surface water is considered to be the top 25 centimeters (9.8 inches) of water; he found debris down as far as 25 meters (82 feet). • Proskurowski’sresearch was done in the North Atlantic, using a tow net to collect samples from specific depths. • He found an abundance of plastic not only floating on the surface but also lurking at depths of about 20 meters. • He believes there is about two and a half times more debris in the oceans than previously estimated.

8. Water Pollution Examples • Excessive nutrients in the Gulf of Mexico • Atrazine • Impact of runoff as a result of floods in North Carolina • PPCPs (pharmaceuticals and personal care products)

9. The Gulf of Mexico • Define: • Eutrophication • Hypoxia • Stratification • What causes hypoxia in the Gulf? • How can we eliminate or at least reduce the hypoxia in the Gulf of Mexico?

10. The GULF of MEXICO “Dead Zone” Hypoxic (oxygen-starved) zones in the Gulf Coast Scale: note the oil drilling platform

11. Eutrophication • Rain in the Mississippi watershed washes soil, organic debris, and nitrogen-rich fertilizers downstream. • A marked increase in the concentration of nitrogen and phosphorous in the Lower Mississippi River was first observed in 1972 and is due to: • The increased use of nitrogen and phosphorous fertilizers • Nitrogen fixation by leguminous crops • Atmospheric deposition of oxidized nitrogen from the combustion of fossil fuels • Many of these nutrients enter the river from non-point sources, which are much more difficult and complex to control and monitor than point sources of pollution.

12. Mississippi River Basin The Mississippi River basin drains approximately 41% of the land area of the contiguous United States, ranging as far west as Idaho, north to Canada, and east to Massachusetts.

13. Stratification • In the spring and summer, freshwater flowing from the Mississippi River and the seasonally warmed surface water of the Gulf have a lower density than the saltier, cooler and more dense water masses near the bottom. • So the temperature, density and salinity of the water in the Gulf of Mexico are not uniform from top to bottom. • This is called stratification. • Stratification leaves the bottom layer isolated from the surface layer and cut off from a normal resupply of oxygen from the atmosphere.

14. Mississippi River Nutrients • Nitrogen and phosphorous occur in four inorganic forms in the river: • nitrate (NO3-) • nitrite (NO2-) • ammonium (NH4+) • orthophosphate (PO4-3). • These nutrients make the Gulf nutrient-rich • The nutrients cause a profuse growth of algae and phytoplankton • The nutrient-enhanced plant production process is called eutrophication

15. Hypoxia • When the algae and phytoplankton die they drop to the ocean floor and are decomposed by bacteria. • The decay process uses oxygen, which results in hypoxia – oxygen deficient water • The water is considered hypoxic when oxygen levels fall to < 2mg/l (2 ppm). • Hypoxia begins in late spring • Reaches a maximum in midsummer • Disappears in the fall • Most aquatic species cannot survive in hypoxic water due to the very low oxygen levels.

16. Hypoxia animation

17. Recommendations • Modify farming practices to decrease nitrogen and phophorous loss: • Better manure control • Alternate crops • Reduced fertilizer use • Use filter strips to protect surface water • Increase wetland acreage to remove nutrients from runoff • May be relatively expensive to install • Generally relatively inexpensive to maintain

18. The Gulf of Mexico • Define: • Eutrophication • Hypoxia • Stratification • What causes hypoxia in the Gulf? • How can we eliminate or at least reduce the hypoxia in the Gulf of Mexico?

19. Atrazine • What is atrazine? • What are the concerns? • Should it be controlled or banned?

20. Atrazine • Atrazine is a triazine herbicide currently registered for the control of grass and broadleaf weeds. • Atrazine is one of the most extensively used agricultural herbicides in the United States, commonly used in pesticides for corn and sorghum. • The average annual use during 1992–1995 was 29 million kg active ingredient applied to about 231,000 km2 of cropland (primarily corn and sorghum)

21. Concerns • Atrazine is water soluble – why is this a problem? • Atrazine has been found in groundwater (including drinking water) at levels of 0.01 to 0.05 micro grams/liter. • Short-term Atrazine exposure above the drinking water maximum contaminant level (MCL) can potentially cause heart, lung, and kidney congestion, low blood pressure, muscle spasms, weight loss, and damage to the adrenal glands. • T. Hayes (and others) found Atrazine to cause hermaphroditic effects in frogs. Syngenta Crop Protection (manufacturer) denies this.

22. Atrazine Litigation Settlement • Syngenta filed a proposed settlement on May 24, 2012 • Water systems joining the class will be eligible for payments from a $105 million settlement funded by Syngenta • The settlement was reached “in order to end the business uncertainty and expense of protracted legal proceedings” • Syngenta acknowledges no liability and continues to stand by the safety of atrazine. They say that the scientific evidence continues to make it clear that no one ever has or ever could be exposed to enough atrazine in water to affect their health.

23. Atrazine • What is atrazine? • What are the concerns? • Should it be controlled or banned?

24. Flooding and Contamination • How does flooding contribute to water quality problems?

25. Runoff from Flooding • Location: North Carolina • Thousands of hogs and other animals drowned. • No hog waste lagoons failed, but they were covered by over 20 feet of flood water and overflowed. • All waste and hogs flowed to the ocean, causing eutrophication (increase in nutrients). Each Dot = 1 Farm

26. Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds Contamination plumes through the Barrier Islands

27. Impacts • Hogs, waste, and other pollutants entered the surface water • Ocean temperatures increased to 80°+ F • Dissolved oxygen levels plummeted • The limited mixing with ocean water: • Increases overall impact • Low oxygen levels killed shellfish, oysters, and fish. • Destroyed the local economy and impacts last a long time

28. Flooding and Contamination • How does flooding contribute to water quality problems?

29. PPCPs • What are they? • Why is there a concern?

30. Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) • Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products as Pollutants (PPCPs) refers to any product used by individuals for personal health or cosmetic reasons or used by agribusiness to enhance growth or health of livestock. • PPCPs comprise a diverse collection of thousands of chemical substances, including prescription and over-the-counter therapeutic drugs, veterinary drugs, fragrances, and cosmetics. • Studies have shown that pharmaceuticals are present in our nation's waterbodies and suggests that certain drugs may cause ecological harm.

31. PPCPs Types Sources Human activity Residues from pharmaceutical manufacturing (well defined and controlled) Residues from hospitals Illicit drugs Veterinary drug use, especially antibiotics and steroids Agribusiness • Prescription and over-the counter therapeutic drugs • Veterinary drugs • Fragrances • Cosmetics • Sun-screen products • Diagnostic agents • Nutraceuticals (e.g., vitamins)

32. Sources of Contamination • Individuals add PPCPs to the environment through • Excretion (the elimination of waste material from the body) • Bathing (externally-applied drugs and personal care products wash down the shower drain) • Disposal of unwanted medications to: • Sewers • Trash Personal use and manufacturing of illicit drugs are a less visible source of PPCPs entering the environment.

33. Expired Medication Disposal Habits 500 patients surveyed: • 54% disposed of medications in the trash • 35.4% flushed drugs down the toilet or sink • 7.2% did not dispose of medications • 2% used all medication prior to expiration • 1.4% returned medications to the pharmacy Boehringer, S. “What’s the Best Way to Dispose of Medications?” (2004)

34. Medicines in the Environment • U.S. Geological Survey monitoring study* • 139 streams analyzed in 30 states *Kolpin, D.W. et al. 2002. “Pharmaceuticals, hormones, & other organic wastewater contaminants in U.S. streams, 1999-2000: A national reconnaissance.” Environmental Science & Technology. 36(6):1202-1211.

35. First Comprehensive Survey by USGS • Surveyed 142 streams, 55 wells and 7 effluents in 36 states between 1999 and 2000 • Contaminants identified in 80% of the streams sampled • 82 contaminants identified (many were pharmaceuticals) • Co-occurrence common; average 7 distinct contaminants identified per stream • Steroids were the most frequently found PPCP Kolpin et al., 2002

36. Brian Fife, John Deere • Mega trends • Growing demand for food, feed, fuel • Global market volatility • Farm size increases & growth in specializations • Environmental sustainability • Lack of skilled labor • Socio-Economic Trends • Population growth • Income growth • Rural/urban shift • “In 50 years the world population will demand 100% more food, 70% of which must come form technology.”

37. Concerns • Large quantities of PPCPs can enter the environment after use by individuals or domestic animals. • PPCPs have been identified in most places sampled. • The number of PPCPs are growing. In addition to antibiotics and steroids, over 100 individual PPCPs have been identified (as of 2007) in environmental samples and drinking water. • Neither municipal sewage treatment plants nor septic systems are equipped for PPCP removal. • The major concerns have been the resistance to antibiotics and disruption of aquatic endocrine systems by natural and synthetic sex steroids.

38. Concerns – Aquatic Life • The risks posed to aquatic organisms, and to humans are unknown. There are no known human health effects from such low-level exposures in drinking water. • Effects on aquatic life are a major concern. • Exposure risks for aquatic organisms are much larger than those for humans. Aquatic organisms have: • continual exposures • multi-generational exposures • exposure to higher concentrations of PPCPs in untreated water • possible low dose effects

39. Agricultural Products Livestock producers may generate medical waste on a daily basis. These wastes include: • Injectable medications – antibiotics, vitamins and minerals, mastitis tubes • Oral medications – dewormers, antibiotics, vitamins and minerals • Topical Medications – sprays, dewormers, ointments • Sharps – needles, syringes, scalpels • Drug containers – empty drug or vaccine vials and outdated drugs • Bandages, medical gloves

40. Proper Disposal of Unused Medicines • Follow any specific disposal instructions on the drug label or patient information. • Do not flush prescription drugs down the toilet unless this information specifically instructs you to do so. • Take advantage of community drug take-back programs that allow the public to bring unused drugs to a central location for proper disposal. • If no take-back program is available • Take medicines out of their original containers and mix them with an undesirable substance, such as used coffee grounds or kitty litter. • Place medicines in a sealable bag, empty can, or other container to prevent the medication from leaking or leaking.

41. Current Events • The Mississippi Watershed • Chesapeake Dead Zone • Emerging Water Issues

42. The Mississippi Watershed • July 17, 2012: The Dead Zone in the Gulf of Mexico is predicted to be the largest ever • The unusually large size of the zone is due to the extreme flooding of the Mississippi River this spring, which equaled or surpassed the historic floods of 1927 and 1937, according to the National Weather Service The majority of land in the Mississippi's watershed is farm land (in green). Each spring, as farmers fertilize their land in preparation for crop season, rain washes fertilizer off the land and into streams, rivers, and then the Gulf of Mexico. This leads to a Dead Zone in the Gulf. USA Today

43. Upper Mississippi River Basin • U.S. Geological Survey study, modeling data collected from 1980-2008 • The Upper Mississippi encompasses parts of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Illinois, Iowa, Indiana and Missouri • Agriculture occupies 67 percent of the area • Estimated to contribute: • 43 percent of the nitrogen flowing to the Gulf • 27 percent of the phosphorous flowing to the Gulf • Conclusion: efforts to reduce nitrate levels in the Mississippi River Basinhave not been successful – nitrate levels did not consistently decline • At most sites, concentrations increased more at low and • moderate streamflows than at high streamflows, suggesting that increasing groundwater concentrations of N and P are having an effect on river concentrations

44. Induced Levee Breaches • Heavy snow melt and rainfall across the eastern half of the Mississippi watershed in spring and early summer of 2011 produced one of the most powerful floods in the Mississippi River’s known history. • The water from the Mississippi and Ohio rivers arrived in the Cairo, Ill., area at about the same time, straining the levees and floodwall system. • The deliberate breaching (blowing up selected dams) of the levees in the New Madrid Floodway below Cairo in May 2011 was a planned strategy to reduce water pressure and prevent levee failures where harm to human life might occur. • Results: • Flooded 53,824 ha of Missouri farmland • Loss of 2011 crops • Damage to future soil productivity

45. Dead Zone Grows in Chesapeake Bay • A giant underwater dead zone in the Chesapeake Bay is growing at an alarming rate because of unusually high nutrient pollution levels this year, according to Virginia and Maryland officials. • The expanding area of oxygen-starved water is on track to become the bay's largest ever. • Especially heavy flows of tainted water from the Susquehanna River brought as much nutrient pollution into the bay by May as normally comes in an entire average year.

46. Recycled sewage water aids biofuel crops • Tel Aviv University researchers are trying to reduce humanity's carbon footprint by growing forests in the most unlikely place — deep in Israel's AravahDesert • To conserve fresh water, the researchers used • Local plant species • Recycled sewage water unsuitable for agriculture • Arid lands unusable for crops • TAU researchers believed that encouraging growth on a piece of land that was traditionally barren, such as desert land, is better than planting trees for biofuel on agricultural soils. Tamarix, a botanical genus that includes salt cedar trees and is indigenous to the old-world deserts

47. Water: The Critical Limiting Factor of 21st Century Production • Morgan Stanley's Global Investment Committee report • The "perfect storm" • Declining water supply • Rising demand

48. Water: The Critical Limiting Factor of 21st Century Production • Result: water will become the critical limiting resource of our time. • The report, entitled, "Peak Water: The Preeminent 21st Century Commodity Story," paints a convincing picture of a world that is on the brink of severe water crisis. • It also offers hope by presenting new technological solutions and opportunities emerging in response.

49. Issues • Steadily Increasing Demand, due to: • Population growth (major cause) • Overall rise in demand for water - outpaced population growth 2x • Estimated U.S. withdrawal rate 10-20% over 1995 levels by 2025 • Extreme Drought Risk: • Cause: increasing temperatures from climate change and global exploitation of water resources • Result: significantly increase threat of drought • Prediction: 2030, nearly two thirds of the US is likely to be drastically drier which will put large parts of the nation at risk for extreme drought • Disappearing Snow Cover: • Snow cover declined 1.3% in the Northern Hemisphere, every ten years for the last decade • The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) predicts that Earth’s middle latitudes will experience snow losses of 60 to 80 percent by the end of the century

50. Investments Needed • More Efficient Irrigation: • Need: increased agricultural output to feed the growing population • Requires: more efficient irrigation techniques to produce more “crop per drop.” • Note: The use of drip irrigation can increase efficiency by 50% over flooding, which is the most common irrigation method used in developing countries. • Result: these improvements are expected to more than double global output by 2050. • Drought-Tolerant Crops: • Cause: climate change is making the world both warmer and drier • Need: Genetic engineering and conventional breeding needed to develop crop varieties that maintain output even in drought conditions