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The Reformation

The Reformation. C.O. 3. Overview of the Reformation. Beginning of modern Europe; profoundly influenced development of western civilization Protestantism adopted by states in Northern Europe Religious enthusiasm rekindled

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The Reformation

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  1. The Reformation C.O. 3

  2. Overview of the Reformation • Beginning of modern Europe; profoundly influenced development of western civilization • Protestantism adopted by states in Northern Europe • Religious enthusiasm rekindled • Catholic Counter Reformation responded to Protestant challenge, with some success • Destroyed religious unity of W. Europe & initiated period of devastating religious wars in 16th & 17th centuries

  3. I. The Protestant Reformation • Causes of the Reformation 1. Crises of the Later Middle Ages hurt the prestige of the Church a. Babylonian Captivity, 14th century b. Great Schism, 1377-1417 c. Failure of the Conciliar Movementin 15th and early 16th centuries

  4. 2. Corruption: a. simony: sale of church offices b. pluralism: church officials holding two offices at one time c. absenteeism: an official not participating in benefices but receiving payments and privileges d. sale of indulgences: people paid the Church to absolve their sins or sins of their loved ones e. nepotism: favoring family members in the appointment of Church offices f. moral decline of the papacy: certain popes and priests had sexual affairs g. clerical ignorance: illiteracy rampant

  5. 3. Critics of the Church: emphasized a personal relationship with God as primary a. John Wyclif(1329-1384): England • Stated the Bible was the sole authority • Stressed personal communion with God • Diminished the importance of the sacraments • Translated the Bible into English • His followers were Lollards

  6. b. John Hus (1369-1415), Czech • Ideas influenced by Wyclif • Led a nationalist movement in Bohemia (modern-day Czech Republic) • Burned at the stake for his “heretical” views • Hussites: followers of Hus who staged large rebellions in the 14th century

  7. Brethren of Common Life: Thomas á Kempis (1380-1471) • Imitation of Christ, 1418 • Encouraged Christians to live life simply and make religion a personal experience d. Erasmus, In Praise of Folly (1509) • Criticized corruption in the Church and the hypocrisy of the clergy • “Erasmus laid the egg that Luther hatched”

  8. 4. Impact of Renaissance humanism a. Christian humanists of the Northern Renaissance criticized the Church and questioned the Latin Vulgate • Textual criticism and new translations of the Bible undermined Catholic authority † Valla: Donation of Constantine † Jacques LeFevre d’ Etaples †Erasmus †Cardinal Ximenes de Cisneros in Spain

  9. b. Italian Renaissance’s worldly influence on church leaders drew criticism c. Zwingli was trained as a humanist and as a preacher used Erasmus’ edition of the Greek New Testament d. John Calvin was influenced by humanism, especially Erasmus e. After Luther’s reformation humanists turned many monasteries into schools f. The printing press facilitated the spread of humanist ideas

  10. Martin Luther (1483-1546) A. Background 1. Augustinian monk; taught at the University of Wittenburg in Saxony 2. Johann Tetzel encouraged by Pope Leo X to sell indulgences a. Indulgences were payments to reduce a person’s punishment in Purgatory, or perhaps the pain of a loved one who had already died

  11. b. Tetzel: “As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, a soul from purgatory springs.” “A Question to the Mintmaker,” c. 1530, woodcut by Jörg (Jeorg/Jan) Breu the Elder

  12. c. Pope Leo X was looking for additional revenues to pay for the construction of Michelangelo’s dome atop St. Peter’s Basilica d. Tetzel’s selling of indulgences had become egregious Raphael: Pope Leo X with Cardinals Giulio de' Medici and Luigi de' Rossi1518-19

  13. B. Ninety-five Theses, Oct. 31, 1517, Wittenburg Church 1. Luther criticized the selling of indulgences and questioned the scriptural authority of the pope to grant indulgences 2. Printing press spread Luther’s work with astonishing speed ?

  14. Luther challenges Church authority 1. Initially, the pope saw the debate over indulgences as relatively insignificant 2. 1518, Luther defied pope’s order to stop his crusade a. Protected by Frederick the Wise of Saxony b. At this point, Luther was only interested in reforming the Church

  15. 3. Debate with Johann Eck at Leipzig, 1519 a. Luther denied the infallibility of the pope and of a general council b. Claimed Church erred when it executed John Hus c. Represented the point of no return for Luther

  16. Eck vs. Luther

  17. 4. 1520, Luther published his theology of reform a. Salvation through faith alone † Rejected “good works” as the means to salvation b. Bible was the ultimate authority. c. Baptism and Communion were the only valid sacraments. † Rejected five of the Seven Sacraments † Rejected transubstantiation † Advocated consubstantiation -- “Real Presence”

  18. This is the title page of a book written by Luther, Babylonian Captivity of the Church, in which Luther only recognizes two of the seven Catholic sacraments

  19. d. The church consisted of a “priesthood of all believers”; not a hierarchical structure e. Criticized sale of indulgences and simony f. Encouraged Germany princes to reform the Church in their states g. Rejected monastic tenets of poverty, chastity and obedience

  20. 4. Luther excommunicated by Pope Leo X in 1520 -- Luther threw the papal bull that excommunicated him into the fire

  21. Two woodcuts included in Luther’s pamphlet, Passional Christi und Antichristi Originally drawn by Lucas Cranach the Elder

  22. 6. Diet of Worms (1521) a. Tribunal of the HRE with power to outlaw and sentence execution b. Charles V demanded Luther recant his writings c. Luther refused "Here I stand. I cannot do otherwise.”

  23. d. Edict of Worms: Luther outlawed as a heretic by the HRE e. Luther was kidnapped and taken to Frederick the Wise’s castle where he was protected. "Here I stand. I cannot do otherwise.”

  24. D. Translated Bible into German vernacular in 1523 † Democratized religion E. Confessions of Augsburg (1530) 1. Written by Philip Melanchthon 2. Attempt at compromise between Lutheran and Catholic princes failed 3. Became official statement of Lutheran Church a. Salvation through faith alone b. Bible is the sole authority c. “Priesthood of all believers”

  25. III. Political battle over Lutheranism in Germany A. Spread of Lutheranism 1. Many northern German states switched to Lutheranism a. German princes were politically motivated b. Southern Germany remained Catholic 2. Denmark and Sweden became Lutheran states 3. Lutheranism did not spread much beyond these regions

  26. B. Charles V sought to stop the spread of Protestantism and preserve the hegemony of Catholicism 1. In this sense, Charles was similar to a medieval emperor 2. The Turkish threat in Hungary and his wars with France diverted his attention Emperor’s Banner

  27. C. German Peasants Revolt (1524-1525) 1. Twelve Articles, 1525: peasants end of serfdom and tithes, and other feudal practices that oppressed the peasantry -- Many peasants were inspired by Luther Twelve Articles of the Swabian Peasants pamphlet, 1525

  28. 2.Luther’s views on the peasant movement were conservative a. He believed people should obey their secular rulers b. Although he sympathized with some peasant aims, he abhorred their violence 3. As many as 100,000 died in the revolts -- Both Lutheran and Catholic forces took part in squashing the revolt

  29. Map of Peasant Revolts

  30. Northern Germany 1. League of Schmalkalden, 1531 a.Formed by newly Protestant (Lutheran) princes to defend themselves from Charles V’s drive to re-Catholicize Germany b. Francis I of France allied with the League (despite being Catholic)

  31. Hapsburg-Valois Wars: five wars between 1521 and 1555 between France and the HRE in Italy • France sought to keep Germany divided. • Resulted in the long-term political fragmentation of Germany • Catholic unity in Germany never again occurred

  32. 3. Charles V finally defeated the League in 1547 but Lutheranism had already taken hold permanently

  33. Peace of Augsburg, 1555 1. Temporarily ended the struggle in Germany over Lutheranism 2. Provisions a. Princes in Germany could choose either Lutheranism or Catholicism b. Protestants living in Catholic states were allowed to move to Protestant states; the same was true of Catholics in Protestant states 3. Result: permanent religious division of Germany

  34. IV. The Spread of Protestantism A. Anabaptists (formed in Zurich, 1525) 1. Characteristics a. Voluntary association of believers with no connection or allegiance to any states b. Did not believe in childhood baptism. c. Millenarians who believed the end of the world was near d. Rejected the idea of the Trinity. e. Some historians see them as the “Left Wing” of the Reformation.

  35. 2. 1532, a radical group of revolutionary Anabaptists took control of Münster a. Led by John of Leyden b. Polygamy was instituted c. Women also served as leaders d. All books burned except the Bible e. Some Lutherans and Catholics were killed. f. Tragedy at Münster, 1535*: combined armies of Catholic and Protestant forces captured the city and executed the Anabaptist leaders

  36. The bodies of executed Anabaptist leaders were publicly displayed in iron cages hanging from St. Lambert’s church for many years.

  37. 3. Long-term impact of Anabaptists a. Mennonites: founded by Dutch leader Menno Simons (1496-1561) -- Emphasized pacifism b. Quakers in England shared similar beliefs. c. Unitarians (who rejected the Trinity) were also descendants of the Anabaptists. 4. Luther did not believe in the legitimacy of any other faith except mainstream Protestantism.

  38. B. Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) • Student of humanism • Adopted Lutheranism in Zurich, Switzerland; established a theocracy 3. In contrast to Luther, he saw the Eucharist as only symbolic. 4. Colloquy of Marburg (1529): Zwingli officially split with Luther over the Eucharist. 5. Luther’s Augsburg Confession excluded non-Lutheran reformers such as Zwingli.

  39. C. Calvinism (most significant of the new Protestant sects) 1. John Calvin (1509-1564) a. Frenchman; studied to be a priest and later trained as a lawyer b. Influenced by humanism, especially Erasmus c. Exiled to Switzerland due to his reform ideas

  40. 2. Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536) a. Calvin’s foundational work b. Pre-destination: Since God is all- knowing, He already knows who is going to Heaven or Hell. • Thus, “good works” not sufficient for salvation and there is no free will since God has already made His decision • Yet, good works are a sign that one has been chosen for salvation. • God reveals if one has been chosen for salvation through a conversion experience.

  41. The “elect” are church members who have had their conversion experience and should become model Christians: “visible saints” St. Pierre Cathedral, where Calvin preached in Geneva.

  42. 3. Calvin established a theocracy in Geneva by 1540 a. Geneva became the new center of the Reformation in Europe. b. Like Zwingli in Zurich, Calvin believed church and city should combine to enforce Christian behavior. • Only those committed to following Calvinism were allowed to live in the city.

  43. 4. Calvinists were the most militant and uncompromising of all Protestants. a. The Consistory: a judiciary made up of lay elders had the power to impose harsh penalties for those who disobeyed God’s law

  44. b. Michael Servetus, a Unitarian humanist from Spain, was burned at the stake in 1553 for his denial of the Trinity.

  45. 5. Protestant work ethic: Calvinists later stressed the importance of hard work and accompanying financial success as a sign that God was pleased 6. Spread of Calvinism: greater impact on future generations than Lutheranism a. Scotland: Presbyterianism established in 1560 by John Knox (1505-1572)

  46. b. France: Huguenots suppressed by Catholic authorities c. Netherlands: Dutch Reformed Church challenged Catholicism d. England: Puritanswere eventually persecuted by the Anglican Church e. Countries to where Calvinism did not spread: -- Ireland -- Spain -- Italy -- All three were heavily Catholic

  47. The Protestant and Catholic Reformations

  48. V. The English Reformation • Early English reformers 1. John Wyclif’s followers—the Lollards—still existed in England in the 16th century.

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