Educational Tensions: The Academy, the State and the Economy in 21 st Century Southeast Asia

1. Educational Tensions: The Academy, the State and the Economy in 21st Century Southeast Asia Deane Neubauer Professor Emeritus, UHM Senior Consultant, EWC IFE 2020

2. “Things” at the Vectors of Change within SE Asia Higher Education • Access • Capacity • Equity • Finance • Governance—country and region • Mobility and Migration • Quality Assurance • “World Class Institutions” • Pervasive nature of the “alignment” issue

3. Orders of Magnitude UNESCO Data 2006-8

4. Access • Access for whom? And for what? • The tyranny of demography—the view from Asia as a whole: declining growth countries (Japan, Taiwan, Korea), middling growth ratd countries (China, Thailand); high growth rate countries (Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam) • Public and private conceptions of access—operating across “legacy” higher education concepts, governmental bureaucracies, and restructuring relations of public and private.

5. Source: World Population Prospects, 2006 Revision, U.N. Population Division (http://esa.un.org/unpp/)

6. Capacity • Always a variable • Capacity for what? • Initial issue is capacity for access • Then, capacity for equity • Then, capacity for differential levels of mission, purposes, levels of quality

7. Finance • The impacts and legacies of neo-liberalism; the Washington Solution; recovering from the fiscal crises of the 1990’s • Shift from government to private sector—new players in the higher education “game” with new criteria of success • Results in “allowing” many more private sector institutions • Burden on student fees • Trade off with “autonomy” • Differentiated public funding with emphasis on “elite class” HEIs—In the extreme it might be seen that public authority is allowing the private sector to dominate “teaching” as it preserves “research”.

8. Governance • Complex dis-aggregations from government ministries either to private sector, or to some form of institutional autonomy, autonomous research universities in Thailand, and “restructured” state universities in Indonesia. • Also complex linkages to quality assurance with some forms being within government (e.g. Thailand, Indonesia)) and some being in the non-profit sector (Philippines) although authorized by government. • Efforts to establish regional quasi-governance relationships, e.g. ASEAN, APQN,SEAMEO-SEAMEO, SEAMEO-RIHED (Regional Center for Higher Education and Development).

9. Mobility and Migration • Within country—urban to rural • Cross-country—from developing to developed, and then back (brain drain and brain train) • Efforts by Malaysia and Singapore to establish “education hubs”—Singapore as “Boston” of the East; Malaysia-Kuala Lumpur and Jahor • Competition within Asia for international students—huge draw of Australia (20% of Australian HE students are international); efforts on part of falling demographic countries (Japan, Korea, Taiwan) to utilize excess capacity by importing international students. Studies of de-facto integration, e.g. Waseda University: Study on De facto Integration of ASEAN Higher Education • Student mobility • Faculty mobility • Inter-universities agreements • International collaborative degree programs • Resource sharing • Research cooperation and so on..

10. Quality Assurance • Many, many types…from older and well developed (Philippines, Singapore, Malaysia) to relatively recent (Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, Cambodia). • In QA paradigm, most are “input”oriented, rather than “output” oriented—capacity/access focused rather than learning outcomes and quality oriented. • Much linkage within QA structures, including Asia Pacific Quality Network and ASEAN Quality Assurance Network (AQAN-2008) build on experience of ASEAN University Network (AUN-1998). • Overall assessment is that QA is (a) still immature, (b) growing in status and importance, (c) being progressively linked to “global” and “cross-border” quality issues, and (d) driven in part by notions of global competitiveness and rankings phenomena.

11. World Class Institutions • Everybody wants one, but it is not clear what they are. • What is clear is that most of them are in the US, Britain, Australia, and Europe. (@50 of the top are from US) • A fierce competition to develop such status—e.g. Thailand argues that it possesses 8 such institutions; Malaysia 4. • Within this group Singapore National is highest ranked—31st in GS Global Rankings (http://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings)

12. Malaysia • Targeting 40% of 19-24 cohort in higher education by 2020 • Seven major reform objectives: 1) widening access and enhancing quality; 2) improving the quality of teaching and learning; 3) enhancing research and innovation; 4) strengthening institutions of higher education; 5) intensifying internationalization; 6) enculturation of lifelong learning; 7)reinforcing the MOHE’s delivery system • Become an education hub: attract 100,000 overseas students by 2010—established Educity adjacent to Singapore and Kuala Lumpur Education City close to KL.

13. Institutional Types • Research universities—4 • Teaching universities—18 public, 50+ private (allowable since 1996—continuous growth) • Open Universities: Open University of Malaysia (OUM), the Asia E University (AEU), the Wawasan Open University (WOU), the University Al Medinah, the University Tun Abdul Razak (UNITAR) and the International Center for Islamic Finance (INCEIF). • Four external universities maintain campuses: U. of Nottingham, Monash U., Curtin U., and Swinburne University of Technology…more expected • 19 UK universities running 110 twinning programs; 18 Australia Universities offering 71 (as of 2009).

14. Singapore • Educational dilemma—small city state with an increasingly important role in global commerce and finance—need to expand capacity to enlarge intellectual capital • Key policy goals to (a) attract key—innovative—researchers; (b) top international students (who are then recruited to remain); and (c) to expand local capacity through cooperation and linkage. (“We rent brains.”) • “Home institutions”—funded by, and located within Singapore • The “Global School House” Initiative (2002)—has resulted in 16 leading global tertiary institutions located in Singapore and 44 pre-tertiary institutions offering international curricula; joint degree programs • Collective government policy to attract top-ranked educational institutions (Economic Development Board; Tourism Board; International Enterprise Singapore; SPRING Singapore; Ministry of Education

15. Singapore—Relative Success • In 2007, it was estimated to have 86,000 international students from 120 countries studying in Singapore, approximately had 1120 crossborder education program arrangements in the city-state. • Over 1,200 private HEIs and 44 pre-tertiary schools offering international curricula in Singapore. • Raffles Education Corp, the largest private education group in Asia, has established its international headquarters in Singapore. About 61,000 students are studying in its 28 colleges around the Asia-Pacific region. • Public Universities have also played a role in the quest for regional hub of education. The 3 autonomous universities enroll 20% international students who mainly come from ASEAN, China & India. Most of them enrolled in Engineering & Science courses. • As of 2008, the education sector (all levels) contributed about 2 % of Singapore’s GDP and is forecasted to reach 5% by 2015. (Ka Ho Mok 2011)

16. Thailand • Most institutions overseen by Commission on Higher Education (COE) part of MOE • Over 160 universities and Colleges in COE. Public and private roughly equal in numbers, but as of 2009, public universities had 85% of students. • Governance: organized into civil service-public universities, autonomous public universities (11), the Rajbaht University system (mainly former normal schools-40) and the Rajmangala University of Technology System (9)

17. Organization of Universities

18. System Outcomes • HEI’s significantly driven by government policies—Ten year development plans • Highly stratified in terms of quality with most HEI talent in Bangkok and Chiang Mai • Quality Assurance within government and relatively new (e.g. first round 2001-2005) • MOE and Commission on Higher Education active in developing (a) research capacities of faculty; (b) promoting “lead” research institutions; (c) expanding fundamental capacity in provincial HEIs, e.g. libraries, ICT; (d) emphasizing faculty development

19. Indonesia • Welch: “Higher education in Indonesia currently faces a number of inter-related challenges - of governance, demographics and finance.” • Demographics: 230 millions—1/4 under the age of 15—higher education population of approximately 3.4 million • Finance—never fully recovered from financial crisis of late 1990s and flight of global companies—44% fall in real wages in 97-98: Agenor:”… the incidence of poverty, (measured on the basis of the national poverty line) rose from 11% to 18% between 1996 and 1999”—poverty hovers at around 18% • Governance– overwhelming diversity challenges effective governance—growing proliferation of Islamic-oriented HEI’s, including those viewed as educational extensions of Pesantren(Islamic Boarding Schools.) • Recent regional formation of Islamic quality assurance body.

20. Indonesia Higher Education • Caught between ongoing financial constraints and spiraling demand for education • Devolution of state finance for higher education and neoliberalism of the financial bailout have led to rampant growth of private higher education—now accounts for about 1.9 million, over 60% of total • Autonomy movement for public universities has intensified their situation. • Overall quality assurance is highly specified, but under-developed in practice.

21. Philippines • Importance of U.S. colonial experience both for primary/secondary and tertiary education • Essentially four kinds of institutions: Public: (a) State University and Colleges- (SUC)--110, (b) Local College and University (LCU). Private (c) sectarian; (d) non-sectarian--1573 • Internationally ranked: UP, De La Salle, Ateneo de Manila University, University of Santo Thomas); • Unique structural consequences of having a domestic educational structure geared to export of graduates—issues of dependency; controlling job flow; and up-market capacity distortions.

22. Performance of PI HEIs--Poor • PRC Licensing exams: 40% • Rapid increase in #’s of examinees (doubled from 2004-2009) • HEI programs do not deliver 6 X out of 10 a quality product: a qualified student • HEIs driven by market demand without ensuring quality in their production processes (curriculum, materials, Faculty)

23. Vietnam • Weak national system in highly expansive mode • 2006—Strong national policy directed by MOE to bring VN into international standards—identified 10 priority academic areas; invested in 9 national universities; and opened partnerships with 8 U.S. universities. • U of Illinois would assist Hanoi University of Technology in Material Science and Technology, the Ho Chi Min City University of Technology in Power and Energy Systems, and the University of Natural Sciences, Hanoi in Chemistry. • California State University paired with Hanoi University of Technology in Mechatronics; UC Davis with the University of Agriculture in Plant Science. • Vietnam seeks to add 20,000 additional Ph.D.’s between 2006 and 2020.

24. Cambodia • As of 2007 22 public and 40 private HEI’s (World Bank Data) • Total enrollment has increased from just over 10,000 in 1997 to 97,524 in 2006. • Total teaching staff 3605/number with Ph.D. 416 • Royal Academy only Ph.D. granting/research institution • QA begun in 2003. • Policy goals: (1) increased access and equity of enrollment opportunity to realize the Royal Government of Cambodia’s pro-poor policy, (2) Quality assurance and improvement at both institutional and system levels, and (3) strengthened institutional management and development. • Governance shift from “control agent” to “monitor and facilitate”.

25. Brunei • Four HEI’s • Universiti Brunei Darussalam(UBD)-established 1985--major research university—300 staff and 2800 students • Institut Teknologi Brunei (ITB)--designated for practice-oriented technical certification • Pengiran Anak Puteri Rashidah College of Nursing—offers tertiary nursing and mid-wifery • Sultan Saiful Rijal Technical College (MTSSR) and Jefri Bolkiah College of Engineering (MKJB)--post-secondary institutions which equip secondary school leavers and working adults with technical skills and knowledge to meet the manpower needs of various industrial sectors.

26. Laos • HEI is fundamentally under-resourced. The critical issue is generating capacity to facilitate access. Key capacity funding coming from Official Development Assistance with most of the money from Australia. • Data: • 39 HEIs (3 universities-National University of Laos, Souphanouvong University, Champasck University; 5 Teachers Training Colleges; 31 Private HEIs) (2006 UNESCO Data) • Total enrollment 47, 424; 2,287 teaching staff—only a small % of which has the doctorate • 2.3% of GDP expenditure on education of which 9.2% goes to higher education.

27. ASEAN Harmonization Vision (2008) • Students from different countries spend at least a year studying in other countries • Students in different locations are offered the same quality of education regardless of  higher education institutions • Graduates from one country are recruited by the employment sector in other countries • A multi-national workplace • Close collaboration  between faculty in creating and developing new knowledge • Close collaboration between students in creating and developing new knowledge • Close collaboration between employment sectors in creating and developing new knowledge • Larger volume of adult students in the higher education system