The social construction of young people within Coalition (education) policy

1. The social construction of young people within Coalition (education) policy Rachel Brooks Brunel University

2. Background • Some Coalition policies which affect young people have received considerable attention • ‘Sexualisation’ debate • Wide press coverage (e.g. of Bailey Review, 2011) • Web chatrooms (e.g. Mumsnet campaign) • Academia (e.g. Charles, 2011; Livingstone, 2011) • However, other constructions have received less attention • Paper starts to redress this gap • Primarily education, but other adjacent policy areas as well

3. Policy texts • Coalition documents • Positive for Youth (DfE, 2011) • The Importance of Teaching (DfE, 2010) • Students at the Heart of the System (BIS, 2011) • Thematic analysis • Comparison with New Labour policies in education and related areas (1997-2010) • Youth Matters (DfES, 2005) • Higher Standards, Better Schools for All (2005) • The Future of Higher Education (DfES, 2003) • Focus on extent of continuity or change

4. Policy relationships • Extension • Friends and students of business • Active consumers • Reconfiguration • Dutiful citizens • Children of authoritative parents • Initiation • ‘Good characters’-in-the-making • A unitary group

5. Policy relationships (I) • Extension • Friends and students of business • Active consumers

6. Extension: friends and students of business • Business involvement in education • ‘Studio Schools’ – 14-19 year olds spend significant proportion of week working with local employers • 9am-5pm days; no set terms – must apply for leave • More comprehensive work experience programme ‘will open up new horizons for young people of every ability and background’ (p.30) • ‘We want our universities to look again at how they work with business, across their teaching and research activities, to promote better teaching, employer sponsorship, innovation and enterprise’ (Students at the Heart of the System, p.39) • Inculcation of business values • Valued character traits: e.g. being ‘enterprising and entrepreneurial’

7. Extension: active consumers • Importance of extending ‘choice’ further • ‘The Government recognises the need for further innovation in the schools system to increase choice for parents and students’ (p.25) • Expectation that HE students will ‘become more discerning’ (p.29, Students at the Heart of the System) • Requirement for universities to provide ‘Key Information Set’, to facilitate ‘choice’ on the part of students • But limits to the extent students can actually choose (unless have AAB) due to retention of cap

8. Policy relationships (II) • Reconfiguration • Dutiful citizens • Children of authoritative parents

9. Reconfiguration: dutiful citizens • Strong encouragement of volunteering • Dedicated funding for volunteering charities • ‘Social action projects empower young people to make a difference on issues they care about and can therefore be an important vehicle for engaging the most disaffected’ (p.39) • Piloting of National Citizen Service • Programme of personal and social development and volunteering activity • ‘It challenges young people to develop the skills needed to be active, responsible citizens’ (p.41)

10. Reconfiguration: dutiful citizens • Replacement for statutory citizenship education lessons, with strands on • Political literacy • Social and moral responsibility • Community involvement • Critique of New Labour policy • Focus on ‘active’ citizenship seen as moving away from a rights-based understanding; foregrounding of responsibilities (Lister et al., 2005) • Skills and competences likely to make contribution to economy, rather than more democratic understandings (Coffey, 2004) • Trends exacerbated under Coalition?

11. Reconfiguration: children of authoritative parents • Seen as a key influence • ‘Parenting has a greater impact on…wellbeing, learning and development than anything else’ (p.19) • Emphasised throughout Positive for Youth • Young people in need of parenting • Parents in need of support and advice • ‘Many parents…find it harder to cope during these years and say they would welcome additional advice and assistance’ (p.8) • ‘Some parents will need help to strengthen their ability to support their children to make positive choices’ (p.8) • ‘Family champions’ to provide ‘one-to-one support and coaching for family members to help them overcome the problems they face’ (p.23)

12. Reconfiguration: children of authoritative parents • Specific form of parenting valorised • ‘Some parenting styles are better for children and young people’s outcomes than others’ (p.18) • Parents ‘help their children by warm authoritative parenting, being actively involved in their learning and development, setting clear boundaries and holding high aspirations’ (p.13-14) • Similar to assumptions of New Labour policy • Aim to transform working class parents into middle class ones (Gewirtz, 2001) • Enshrinement of middle class values (individualism, competitiveness) through encouraging active consumption, ‘policing’ of schools, ‘home educating’ (ibid.)

13. Reconfiguration: children of authoritative parents • But greater emphasis placed on the importance of the nuclear family • ‘Parents influence…remains key. This includes both mothers and fathers’ (p.8) • Involvement of fathers in lives of young people emphasised frequently • More conventional gender roles; reassertion of male breadwinner model of gender relations? • No longer incentives to encourage women out of the home and men to remain in it (Scourfield and Drakeford, 2002) • In keeping with critiques in other areas of social policy (e.g. Women’s Budget Group, 2011)

14. Policy relationships (III) • Initiation • ‘Good characters’-in-the-making • A unitary group

15. Initiation: ‘good characters’-in-the-making • 12 pages of Positive for Youth devoted to ‘Building character and a sense of belonging’ • But a very particular kind of character….. • ‘Schools and colleges play a vital role in developing character….They know how important it is to help young people develop the self-awareness, self-esteem and confidence to take decisions and seize control of their future learning and careers’ (p.33) • ‘Competitive sport provides a particular opportunity for young people to develop their character, resilience and team working skills’ (p.36) • Government funding of Cadet Forces in schools and colleges ‘represents a significant investment in the development of young people’s aspirations, character and leadership potential’ (p.43).

16. Initiation: ‘good characters’-in-the-making • Autonomous, independent, competitive – masculine? • Similar to masculinist constructions of the ‘ideal learner’ as bold, individualistic and competitive (Read et al., 2003) • Attuned to the market • ‘Part time jobs can help young people…learn the habits of punctuality and persistence’ (p.37) • ‘Role models and mentors from the world of work….can be instrumental in helping young people…to be enterprising and entrepreneurial’ (ibid.)

17. Initiation: ‘good characters’-in-the-making • Emphasis on the future, rather than the present • Transitory nature emphasised: youth defined as ‘always “becoming”, waiting for the future to arrive’ (Lesko, 2001: 131) • Passivity a consequence, as young people told only the future matters; that it is the end of the adolescent story that is key (ibid.)

18. Initiation: a unitary group • Explaining ‘adolescence’: the rise and rise of neuroscience • ‘New evidence is emerging that may help parents, carers, and professionals understand what is happening as teenagers’ behaviour changes. This evidence comes from research on how the brain typically undergoes sharp and significant changes during the period from about 11 to 20 years.’ (p.8) • ‘Research on how the brain develops now shows that in early adolescence young people may become more sensitive to reward, but that it takes much longer before they develop their ability to control their impulses and make strategic decisions.’ (ibid.)

19. Initiation: a unitary group • In keeping with wider trends in public debate • E.g. Cordelia Fine’s critique of ‘neurosexism’ (Delusions of Gender, 2010) • Essentialising youth • Detracts attention from both commonalities across age groups and diversity amongst young people (Wyn and White, 1997) • Given de-standardization of life-course, no longer ‘normal situation’ for a person aged 18, 21 or 25 (Roberts, 1997) • Wider social environment thus seen as less influential • ‘The assumption that age is the central process categorising young people gives insufficient weight to difference, process and change’ (ibid., p.13).

20. Concluding comments…. • Who are the young people of Coalition policies? • Friends and students of business • Active consumers • Dutiful citizens • Children of authoritative parents • ‘Good characters’-in-the-making • A unitary group • Some constructions represent continuity with previous education policy; others are reconfigurations or innovations

21. Concluding comments…. • Framed by austerity • Youth unemployment, severe public sector cuts • But has not impacted on all policy areas equally • E.g. money retained for parenting programmes (pilot of universal schemes by DfE) • Impact cannot be simply read off policy pronouncements • Policy is ‘enacted’ (Ball et al., 2011) – resisted, subverted, challenged, partially taken on etc.