Notes for general learning outcomes questions…

1. Notes for general learning outcomes questions…

2. Principles that define the Sociocultural Level of Analysis: The principles of an LOA are what all psychologists from that LOA agree upon, it guides their research and influences the conclusions that they come to. Human beings are social animals and we want connectedness with, and a sense of belonging to others The social and cultural environment influences the individuals behavior Humans are social animals and we construct our conceptions of the individual and social self Peoples views of the world are resistant to change

3. methodologies of the Sociocultural LOA: Researchers form two main camps when it comes to the Sociocultural LOA: Experimental Social Psychologists They believe that the only valid way to gain knowledge about social phenomena, processes and events is by using the scientific method They view the social world as separate from the individual people acting within it Critical Social Psychologists They believe that the scientific method is not the only way to get knowledge and is often not the best way to gain knowledge in social psychology They view the social world as produced by people interacting with each other

4. methodologies of the Sociocultural LOA: • Nowadays Critical Social Psychology dominates the field - significant amount of research is ‘naturalistic’ e.g. participant observations (covert/overt) (immersing themselves in the social setting they are studying for an extended period of time), surveys & interviews are used to collect data to develop and support a theory. • The research of Experimental Social Psychologists was criticized as having low ecological validity. However, ‘naturalistic’ methodologies cannot explain cause and effect relationships. • Overt observations (where the group know they are being observed) require the researcher to gain the trust of the group being observed, e.g. O’Reilly (2000) studied British expatriates on the Costa Del Sol in Spain, and did not find them unhappy with their lives as expats, she carried out interviews and observed their behavior in many different settings. She needed to be non-judgmental and see the world through their eyes. • Covert observations (where the group don’t know they are being observed) are sometimes used with groups that would be hostile to an outsider, perhaps due to the illegal nurture of their activities. E.g. drug users. In covert observations the researcher does not reveal their intentions to the group and records their behavior without gaining informed consent. This raises ethical concerns and also difficulties collecting the data as they often have to rely on memory and cannot carry out interviews, for fear of being ‘discovered’.

5. Different types of research methods… • Laboratory experiments • Covert Observations • Overt Observations • Controlled Observations • Interviews • Surveys • Meta Analysis • Correlational Studies

6. Research from the sociocultural LOA • Heider (1958) • Zimbardo et al. (1973) • Jones and Harris (1967) • Ross et al. (1977) • Fiske & Taylor (2008) • Lau & Russell (1980) • Kashima and Triandis (1986) • Tajfel (1978) • Cialdini et al. (1976) • Tajfel et al. (1971) • Sharif (1954) • Elliot (1968) • Bandura et al. (1961) • Charlton et al. (2002) • Sabido • Aaronson (1995) • Campbell (1967) • Hamilton & Gifford (1976) • Cialdini et al. (1975) • Dickerson et al. (1992) • Asch (1951) • Perrin and Spencer (1988) • Stang (1973) • Friend et al. (1990) • Moscovici and Lage (1976) • Janis’s (1972) • Festinger (1954) • Berry (1967) • Smith and Bond (1993) • Matsumoto (2004) • Herscovits (1948) • Moghaddam (1993) • Jahoda (1978) • Hofstede (1973) • Hedden (2008) • Marcus (2008) • Hofstede (2008) • Tahassum et al. (2000)

7. APA (American Psychological Association) Ethical Guidelines • Why are ethical guidelines particularly important when carrying out psychological research? • Was informed consent adhered to and why should it be adhered to? • Was debriefing carried out and why is it importatnt? • Was the right to withdraw respected and why is it important? • Was participant confidentiality maintained and why is it important? • Were participants protected from psychological and physical harm and why is it important for them to be protected?? Also remember you can mention ‘cost benefit analysis’ when discussing ethical issues

8. Evaluation in Psychology MCEG Gender Equal no of M & F PPs? Can results be generalised? Methodology Culture Ethics Controls? – Variables? Reliability? Validity? Ecological validity? From what culture are the PPs? Cross cultural Validity? Is it ethocentric? Is it generalisable? Are PPs protected from psychological and physical harm? APA/BPS Guidelines followed?

9. Points to consider when evaluating research • Is the study based on a representative group of people (sample)? • Was the study conducted in a laboratory or in a natural setting? • Where what the participants where asked to do far from real life? • Are the findings of the study supported by the findings of other studies? • Do the findings have a practical relevance? • Ethical considerations