Introduction to Argument Chapter 2 (Pgs. 24-36)

1. Introduction to ArgumentChapter 2 (Pgs. 24-36) AP Language Demi Greiner | Arlyn Rodriguez Period 4

2. Logical Argument • Aristotle’s Modes of Persuasion: • Emotional-based on emotion (pathos) • Ethical-based on speaker’s character (ethos) • Logical-based on reason/facts (logos) *Can overlap when used in rhetorical text or visuals • It’s effectiveness depends mostly on whether or not the main assumption or premise is valid/acceptable • Should be objective, use of facts and reason • Argument is rarely supported by only logic

3. Inductive vs. Deductive • Deductive • Defining a truth/value/right to make an argument and support the premise • Using evidence as a secondary support • Starts “big” gets “small” • Uses syllogism pattern • Major Premise (More general): All people have hearts. • Minor Premise (Specific to article): John is a person. • Conclusion: Therefore, John has a heart. • Inductive • Drawing likely conclusion based on specific evidence available • Common in daily life, scientific research, with conclusion based on observation, to seem valid • Ultimate and positive proof is beyond reach, “probability” • Starting “small” and gets “big”

4. The Toulmin Model of Argumentation • Many writers would combine inductive and deductive reasoning when making arguments and make them without the use of formal logic; so they explored ways of making it more practical and effective to use in arguments. • One of the best known systems used was the Toulmin model developed by British philosopher Stephan Toulmin in the 1950s emphasizing that logic is concerned with probability rather than certainty. • The Toulmin model Includes 3 main components: the claim, the data or reason, and the warrant.

5. Understanding Claims and Warrants • Claims: writer's statement of belief the conclusion or point he/ she wants to make. • There are 3 types of claims: claims supported by facts, claims supported by opinion, and claims supported by values. • Warrants: general statement that establishes a trustworthy relationship between the date and the claim. • Claims have to be made strong and support their argument adequately in order to make it effective. • Warrants are complex and differ from one argument to another and sometimes because they reflect beliefs and assumptions, can be controversial and disputable.

6. Evaluating Claims and Warrants • If you want to engage in a serious argument out of desire to address it or solve the problem you need to how claims worked how to evaluate them. • Toulmin's ideas about claim and warrants can be useful in evaluating claims. • If claims are based on a warrant that are not acceptable to an audience, the writer must defend that warrant. Otherwise the claim might not be as persuasive to the audience.