Introduction to argument

1. Introduction to argument Engl 1020 Erin Breaux

2. Complicating rhetorical situation • Author (Writer, Designer, Speaker) • Audience (Reader, Listener) • Text (Genre, Content, Media) • Constraints (Biases, Difficulties, Limits) • Exigence (Purpose, Motivation, Importance) • Kairos (Timeliness, Context)

3. Practice with article Do exercise with a partner after reading article

4. Discuss with group • What other words come to mind when you think of “argument”? • What images come to mind? • How do you usually approach argument? What’s your usual response? Do you initiate?

5. How we talk about argument • Think about the metaphors that we use to describe argument, disagreement, or debate: • “Beat the opponent” • “Win the debate” • “Have the upper hand” • “Prove them wrong” • “Tear down their argument” • Winners & Losers • Pro/Con • For/Against • Us vs. Them

6. Deborah tannen • “The argument culture urges us to approach the world--and the people in it--in an adversarial frame of mind. It rests on the assumption that opposition is the best way to get anything done: The best way to discuss an idea is to set up a debate; the best way to cover news is to find spokespeople who express the most extreme, polarized views and present them as "both sides"; the best way to settle disputes is litigation that pits one party against the other; the best way to begin an essay is to attack someone; and the best way to show you're really thinking is to criticize. …”

7. Deborah tannen (cont.) • “The war on drugs, the war on cancer, the battle of the sexes, politicians' turf battles--in the argument culture, war metaphors pervade our talk and shape our thinking. Nearly everything is framed as a battle or game in which winning or losing is the main concern. These all have their uses and their place, but they are not the only way--and often not the best way--to understand and approach our world. Conflict and opposition are as necessary as cooperation and agreement, but the scale is off balance, with conflict and opposition overweighted.”

8. Necessary argument • It is more than “disagreement” or “fight” • Consider argument as “making a point” or “reasoned inquiry” • A New Definition: “Any issue on which reasonable people can disagree.”

9. The Continuum of Argument Debatable issues

10. Pointless or meaningful argument • Fact: • “That wall is painted green.” • “Michael Jordan is a tall man.” • Subjective Opinion: • Strawberry chunk ice cream is the best flavor. • ______ is sexier than ______ [fill in with celebrities of your choice]. • Room for Debate: • More trivial issues like whether you should put carpet, tile, or wood in your new house, or what kind of dog should you adopt? • More serious issues like whether or not the death penalty is moral and should be used, or what’s the best way to help the AIDs crisis in Darfur?

11. Reasons for argument • To Convince (change mind, bring awareness, show importance) • To Persuade (inspire action or actual change) • To Inform • To Explore • To Make Decisions • BAD REASONS: Just to win or to argue for argument’s sake

12. Belief and Action • Persuasion is what we want someone else to do or not do, believe or not believe. Usually, we try to persuade in order to change minds or spur action. Those are the two argumentative purposes. • Belief/Mind: • Dogs make better pets than cats. • Gay parents should have the same rights as straight parents. • Action: • Drivers over 75 should have to re-take a driving test every 5 years. • The U.S. government should stop sending so much aid to Afghanistan.

13. Group discussion • What do you feel leads to effective argument? • What do you feel impedes argument?

14. Academic Argument • What does argument look like in an academic sense? • You’re required to have more than just opinions in academic discourse. You need to be able to think through your opinions.

15. A pretty good argument

16. Main Parts of Argument

17. Conversation • Our answers to those questions are the substance of our argument, and they distinguish supported argument from fact, dogmatic debate (I believe this because I say so!), or subjective opinion. • When we make an argument in a real conversation, we rely on others to ask those questions, but when we make one in writing, we have to imagine those questions on our readers’ behalf.

18. Visual Structure The number of reasons and amount of evidence will vary according to the argument and the audience (what is needed).

19. Claim (aka Thesis) • what the arguer wants the audience to believe or accept; the main point of the argument; the thesis statement • statements that the writer makes that convey how you want the audience to think about or do something regarding a subject. Claims can always be questioned and challenged; i.e. they are “arguable.” • can appear anywhere in the argument or they may be implied (in which case you must identify them by inference) • organizes the entire argument; everything else in the argument is related to the claim. • There are different types of arguable claims.

20. Reasons • They support a claim—tell why the claim should be accepted in the first place. These are judgments the writer assumes aren't shared by the entire audience. Reasons can also always be questioned and challenged and must be supported with evidence. • The easiest way to determine the reasons you believe a claim or have a certain perspective on an issue: Add “because…” to your claim and finish the new sentence. • To be effective, reasons should be relevant and supportable.

21. Evidence (aka Support) • describes factual conditions that the writer assumes are understood by the audience, make it possible for the reader to accept the claim and reasons. • Usually not questionable or challenged, can be verified. • Evidence is different from reasons; reasons come from the mind of the writer, while evidence already exists out there in the world. • always explicitly stated and will not have to be inferred. • “To be believable and convincing, evidence should satisfy three conditions. It should be sufficient, credible , and relevant” (CSU).

22. Types of Support • Examples • Facts and Statistics • Authorities/Expert Opinion • Anecdotes • First-hand Experience or Observation • Textual Evidence • Analogies: Comparisons or Contrasts • Cause and Effect • Definition • Visuals (Graphs, Charts, Photographs)

23. Multiple Perspectives • Remember how I said that there are more than just two sides to an issue? • That’s because I don’t have to disagree with Bill’s argument (claim, reasons, and evidence) wholesale. • Perhaps I agree with his claim, but I disagree with the reasons he has chosen or think he could have chosen stronger reasons. • Or maybe we mostly disagree but for one situation he gives, I agree in that exception to my argument. • This also means I could agree with Bill’s claim but think he did not present his argument well.

24. Strength of Argument • Some reasons and evidence will be stronger than others. This is why a writer/speaker/designer must choose the best reasons and evidence in order to support their claim and move their audience. • Start thinking about each part of an argument and all aspects of an issue so that you can better analyze and persuade.

25. Rhetorical Situation • It’s also important to think about how the rhetorical situation affects an argument. • Genre or Medium: Does the genre or medium fit the content and purpose of the argument? Does it hinder it? • Audience: What do they already know? What are their likely interests, attitudes, and priorities? What would they find convincing? • Purpose: What is the purpose of this argument? To solve a problem or propose a solution? To change minds/get someone to believe or not believe something? To get someone to do or not do something? To get someone to think something is right or wrong?

26. Sample Argument • Claim: Smoking should be banned in public spaces. • Reason: [Because] It poses too many health risks to smokers and non-smokers. • Support: • Numbers of deaths attributed to second-hand smoke • Lawsuits recently won against large tobacco companies, citing the need for reparation for smoking-related health care costs • Examples of bans already imposed in many public places • Cite the surgeon general for authority • Personal experience of aunt who never smoked but when to bars with husband for many years, contracted lung cancer

27. Understanding and Testing an Argument • What is the purpose here? What effect do we want on audience? • What would be best genre or medium for this argument? • What would audience probably think? • Is the claim arguable, clear, and specific statement? • Are the reasons relevant (connected logically to thesis) and supportable? • Is the evidence sufficient, credible, and relevant?

28. Forms of Argument • Remember that arguments can come in many different forms. • There are WRITTEN arguments like op-ed pieces, academic essays, proposals, etc. • There are ORAL arguments like speeches, debates, radio ads, etc. • There are VISUAL arguments like billboards, magazine advertisements, posters, political cartoons, etc. • There are MULTIMEDIA arguments like websites, commercials, public service announcements, etc.

29. Sample Visual Argument Claim: You should buy Alkaseltzer… Reason: …because it is the best cure for a hangover. Evidence: Alkasetzer will prevent you from doing crazy things while hung over, like using your kitten to wash your dishes. Support is the example of a man doing such a crazy thing while hungover because obviously he didn’t take Alkaseltzer.

30. Explicit vs. Implicit • Depending on the type of argument you are looking at, the claim and/or reasons may not be explicit. • You may have to look closely in order to decide what the author or the text is saying to its audience. • There are also sometimes both explicit and implicit messages to decipher, especially in advertisements. More on this soon!

31. Going Deeper • It’s time to go deeper into argument and add another important part. • Claim + Reasons + Evidence + Assumptions (Our textbook calls them Warrants but I think Assumptions is much easier.)

32. New Parts of Argument Assumptions Assumptions

33. All Parts Together • Claim: What do you think? • Reasons: Why do you think that? • Evidence: How do you know that’s true? • Assumptions: Why does your reason/evidence support your claim? What is the unstated belief that links them? What must an audience also believe in order to see a logical bridge between your claim and your reasons/evidence? What also has to be true for your audience to think your reason logically connects to your claim? What does the audience value/think is important/like or dislike?

34. Assumptions • represents the psychology of an argument • often assumed and taken for granted rather than stated; usually lies beneath the visible structure of argument • forms a logical link between reasons/evidence and a claim (how did we get from here to there?) • is what the audience must believe is true or agree with in order to accept main part of argument • can be cultural or personal values, commonly accepted beliefs or conventions • one claim/reason may have multiple assumptions

35. Thinking of Audience • Sometimes it is necessary to acknowledge these links explicitly depending on the situation and audience. • There might be several different assumptions and they may be stated in various ways by different people. • If readers accept your assumptions, you can then present specific evidence to develop your claim. If readers dispute these, you’ll have to defend the assumptions (with its own evidence) before you can move on to the claim itself. • You see, the assumptions give writer authority to proceed with case and are important to either connect or alienate an audience.

36. Can Assumptions need Support? • In our textbook, when the author refers to “backing,” she means evidence for an assumption. If you use an assumption that a lot of your audience will not agree with, then you may consider offering evidence for your assumption. • Only if needed: Claim + Reasons + Evidence Assumptions + Evidence

37. Remember this argument? • Claim: Smoking should be banned in public spaces. • Reason: [because] smoking poses health risks to smokers and non-smokers. • Evidence: • Numbers of deaths attributed to second-hand smoke • Lawsuits recently won against large tobacco companies, citing the need for reparation for smoking-related health care costs • Examples of bans already imposed in many public places • Cite the surgeon general for authority

38. Let’s Go Inside this Argument • Claim: Smoking should be banned in public spaces. • Reason: [because] smoking poses health risks to smokers and non-smokers. • What does the audience need to *also* believe ? • Assumptions: • Citizens are entitled to protection from harmful actions by others. • Things that are unhealthy should be banned. • Laws should be made about things that pose health risks. • Public places should be healthy places.

39. Debatable assumptions? • Assumptions: • Citizens are entitled to protection from harmful actions by others. • Things that are unhealthy should be banned. • Laws should be made about things that pose health risks. • Public places should be healthy places. • Do YOU agree that things that are unhealthy should be banned? Do you agree in all cases? Some people may not think that assumption is true. • Therefore, if I think that there are many unhealthy behaviors that we can’t or shouldn’t ban, I am probably not going to agree with the reason that the writer gave in this argument.

40. There are, however, some assumptions that most people would agree with and which may be used in many arguments. These would be assumptions that are generally-accepted truths in our society. • Criminals should be punished. (This may be the reason why you support harsher penalties for a certain crime, for example.) • Hard work is virtuous. (This may be why you think standards should be raised in schools, for example.) • Teachers are one of the most important professions in society. (This may be why you want to the states to increase teacher pay, for example.)

41. Is it cultural? • However, different societies and cultures have different generally-agreed-upon truths in the same way they have socially-accepted behaviors. • Many Eastern countries, for example, believe that elders should always be respected. That assumption (something most people in their culture would generally accept as true) may underpin and influence many of their arguments and their positions on issues in relation to Westerners.

42. Another Helpful Strategy • There’s another good way, taken from philosophy and logic, that can help you figure out what the assumptions of an argument are. • Remember: you are trying to make the implicit (unstated) explicit (stated). • Logic often organizes argument according to these three parts: • Major Premise + Minor Premise = Conclusion

43. Using Logic • Major Premise + Minor Premise = Conclusion • These are the parts of argument we have been discussing except in a different order and with different names. • Reason + Assumption = Claim (Thesis) • See how this logical structure makes you have to explicitly state the assumption? • Let’s put it into a math-like equation that you can use like a fill-in-the-blank. • P. S. This is the most math you’ll ever get from me!

44. Using the Logic Equation

45. Back to the Smoking Argument

46. Examples • Claim: You should not eat that mushroom • Reason: The mushroom is poisonous. • Assumption: Eating poisonous things is dangerous. • (Most people would agree with this. That’s why most people would have no problem with this entire argument! But if you think poison isn’t a big deal, you will probably not accept the writer’s reason for why it is bad to eat a mushroom.)

47. Examples • Claim: The town should create a plan to manage building preservation and new development. • Reason: If this doesn’t happen, the town won’t grow in population and money. • Assumptions: Neither uncontrolled development nor zero development is healthy for a town. • A town that is continually growing is good.

48. Examples • Claim: We need to stop using hairspray. • Reason: Hairspray pollution harms the ozone layer. • Assumptions: We want a healthy ozone layer. • Harming the ozone layer is bad. • Anything that causes pollution should be stopped.

49. Remember this Visual Argument? Claim: You should buy Alkaseltzer… Reason: …because it is the best cure for a hangover. What are the assumptions? People don’t like being hung over. Hang overs are unpleasant. People like to stop unpleasant things as soon as possible. People don’t want kitten to be hurt. People think kittens are cute.

50. Visual Rhetoric Revisited