Describe 2 kinds of eye movements and their function.

1. Describe 2 kinds of eye movements and their function. Describe the specialized gaze patterns found by Land in cricket. Describe your results in the ball-catching lab. How do they compare with Land’s? What is meant by “top-down” and “bottom-up” processing? Give examples of both. Give some examples that reveal attentional limitations in visual processing. What is “Neuroeconomics”? Explain how the saccadic eye movement circuitry is influenced by reward. Give some examples that eye movements are learned. Describe the Sprague and Ballard theory (Walter) of gaze control. What evidence is there to support the theory. Why is it useful? Draw a sketch of the brain showing the structures involved in the generation of a saccadic eye movement. Specify the function of these structures.

2. Describe 2 kinds of eye movements and their function.

3. Types of Eye Movement Information GatheringStabilizing Voluntary (attention) Reflexive Saccades vestibular ocular reflex (vor) new location, high velocity, ballistic body movements Smooth pursuit optokinetic nystagmus (okn) object moves, velocity, slow whole field image motion Vergence change point of fixation in depth slow, disjunctive (eyes rotate in opposite directions) (all others are conjunctive) Fixation: period when eye is relatively stationary between saccades.

4. Why do we move our eyes? High density of cone photoreceptors in central fovea - also high acuity

5. Describe the sequence of eye movements you might make in an everyday task eg making breakfast. Describe the function of each movement. Making breakfast: Upon entering the kitchen: saccade to the cupboard on the basis of memory, as I know cereal is located there. Approach cupboard and saccade to door handle to guide hand to open door. Search for cereal with several saccades, maybe landing on boxes of similar size and appearance. When saccade lands on the correct box, stay fixating to guide the grasp of the box. Rotate body and head to exit the cupboard and make a big saccade to the cupboard containing the bowls. Fixate the cupboard while I walk there and make a fixation to the handle to guide opening….

6. Describe the specialized gaze patterns found by Land in cricket.

7. Batsman anticipate bounce point Better batsman arrive earlier saccade pursuit Eye movements in cricket: 1) Batsman fixates the bowler’s hand 2) Makes a saccade to the anticipated location of the bounce. 3) This is followed by a smooth pursuit movement after the bounce. The bounce point gives information about where and when to swing the bat. Land & MacLeod, 2001

8. Describe your results in the ball-catching lab. Did you find the same basic pattern as Land did? How did your results differ?

9. X smooth pursuit saccade X Catching: Gaze Patterns X Thrower Catcher

10. Draw a sketch of the brain showing the structures involved in the generation of a saccadic eye movement. Specify the function of these structures (to the extent that this is possible)

11. Generation of Saccades monitor/plan movements (LIP) target selection saccade decision V1 (image) Inhibits SC Saccade command signals to muscles

12. Retina to Saccade Photoreceptors ganglion cells LGN Primary visual cortex SEF/FEF, PF Cortex Basal ganglia (caudate/SNc) SC/mid-brain brain stem (Reticular formations) oculomotor groups

13. Why is prediction necessary? Components of visuo-motor latency. Photoreceptors ganglion cells LGN primary visual cortex posterior parietal ctx pre-motor ctx M1 muscles Round trip from eye to brain to muscles takes a minumum of 200 msec. Ball (our expt) only takes about 900 msec. Prediction gets around the problem of sensory delays.

14. What is meant by “top-down” and “bottom-up” processing? Give examples of both. Bottom up processes are evoked by the visual stimulus. Top down processes are operations that reflect the subject’s current cognitive goals. In the case of eye movements, fixations that are for the purpose of getting specific information to accomplish a task are said to reflect top down control. Fixations that are evoked automatically by the occurrence of a stimulus are said to be under bottom up control. Examples?

15. What is “Neuroeconomics”? Explain how the saccadic eye movement circuitry is influenced by reward. Humans/primates exhibit behaviors that lead to expected reward. Reward is provided by the release of dopamine.

16. Dopaminergic neurons in basal ganglia signal expected reward. (Schultz, 2000) SNpc Expected reward is absent. Response to unexpected reward Increased firing for earlier or later reward

17. Neurons at all levels of saccadic eye movement circuitry are sensitive to reward. LIP: lateral intra-parietal cortex. Neurons involved in initiating a saccade to a particular location have a bigger response if reward is bigger or more likely SEF: supplementary eye fields FEF: frontal eye fields Caudate nucleus in basal ganglia

18. This provides the neural substrate for learning gaze patterns in natural behavior, and for modeling these processes using Reinforcement Learning. (eg Sprague, Ballard, Robinson, 2007)

19. Give some examples that eye movements are learned. Jovancevic & Hayhoe 2009 Real Walking

20. Learning to Adjust Gaze • Changes in fixation behavior fairly fast, happen over 4-5 encounters (Fixations on Rogue get longer, on Safe shorter)

21. Top Down strategies: Learn where to look Detection of signs at intersection results from frequent looks. Shinoda et al. (2001) “Follow the car.” or “Follow the car and obey traffic rules.” Time fixating Intersection. Road Car Roadside Intersection

22. Give some examples that reveal attentional limitations in visual processing • Difficult to detect color change in one of 8 colored squares. • Invisible gorilla • Color-changing card trick • What are these examples called? • What conclusions has been drawn from these experiments.