Motivation

1. Motivation • Motivation = an internal state or condition (sometimes described as a need, desire or want) that serves to activate or energize behavior and give it direction. • What moves you to action?

2. Theories of Motivation Application: INSTINCT BEHAVIOR IS MOTIVATED BY… APPLICATION… WEAK… however, we can apply the characteristic of genetic transmission to the fact that some people are biologically programmed to become addicted more easily than others Some psychologists argue that there are social behavior instincts (parenting mating, belonging, jealousy) missing the uniform in expression component though • Unlearned, genetically encoded programming. • Completely emphasizes biology and evolutionary perspective • Instincts = behavior patterns that are automatic, involuntary, uniform in expression and universal in a species (i.e., imprinting) • Only theory to completely emphasize biology

3. Theories of Motivation Application: DRIVE-REDUCTION BEHAVIOR IS MOTIVATED BY… APPLICATION… EXPLAINS MAINTENANCE OF SMOKING… as she becomes addicted over time Lack of nicotine (now a bio need because of addiction)  psych discomfort (drive)  smoke (restoration of equilibrium) • Need  Drive  Drive Reducing Behaviors • Need = bio requirement • Drive = an internal (psychological state of arousal) state of tension that compels us to engage in activities that should reduce this tension • Homeostasis = body’s tendency to maintain constant internal clock • INTERNAL STATE pushing individual in certain direction

4. Theories of Motivation Application: INCENTIVE BEHAVIOR IS MOTIVATED BY… APPLICATION… Smokes to be accepted by peer group, to get attention (positive reinforcement), or to relieve stress (negative reinforcement) • External goals, such as seeking of rewards (intrinsic or extrinsic) or avoidance of punishment (intrinsic or extrinsic) • EXTERNAL STIMULUS pulls you in certain direction • Take Work and Family Orientation Survey (pgs 331 and 334)

5. Fig. 12.1 Needs and incentives interact to determine drive strength (above). (a) Moderate need combined with a high-incentive goal produces a strong drive. (b) Even when a strong need exists, drive strength may be moderate if a goal’s incentive value is low. It is important to remember, however, that incentive value lies “in the eye of the beholder.”

6. Theories of Motivation Application: OPTIMAL AROUSAL BEHAVIOR IS MOTIVATED BY… APPLICATION… Completing work all day at school  level of arousal is low so go out and smoke Disobeying parents gives her a thrill • Maintain optimal level (differs from person to person) of physiological stimulation (heart rate, muscle tension, brain activity • Despite having all our biological needs satisfied, we feel driven to experience stimulation. Without it, we feel bored and look for a way to increase arousal. However, with too much stimulation comes stress, and we then look for a way to decrease arousal • Curiosity driven and risk taking behaviors • Watch Sensation Seeking Video (V47); Extreme Sports: Why People Do It? http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fVgUnl0wu2c • Take Sensation Seeking Survey • http://www.ted.com/talks/susan_cain_the_power_of_introverts.html Shyness

7. Theories of Motivation Application: MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS BEHAVIOR IS MOTIVATED BY… APPLICATION… Since her biological and safety needs are being met, she is striving to meet her needs for acceptance and belonging, which she thinks is through smoking. • Desire to achieve maximum potential, unless obstacles are placed in the way, such as lower physiological (food, water, oxygen, sleep) and psychological needs (safety, belonging, esteem). • Until met, some motives are more compelling than others at certain points in our lives; however, a given motive does not have to be 100% satisfied before we turn to higher need and we don’t always have to go in order • Take Self-Actualization Survey (

8. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Examines why some motives are more compelling than others at certain points in our lives Self-actualization needs Need to live up to one’s fullest and unique potential • begins at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied • then higher-level safety needs become active • then psychological needs become active • A given motive did not have to be 100% satisfied before we turn to a higher need Esteem needs Need for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and independence; need for recognition and respect from others Belongingness and love needs Need to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and alienation Safety needs Need to feel that the world is organized and predictable; need to feel safe, secure, and stable Physiological needs Need to satisfy hunger and thirst

9. The Role of the Hypothalamus in Hunger and Satiety Matrix

10. The Role of the Hypothalamus in Hunger and Satiety Matrix

11. The Role of the Hypothalamus in Hunger and Satiety Matrix

12. The Role of the Hypothalamus in Hunger and Satiety Matrix

13. The Role of the Hypothalamus in Hunger and Satiety Matrix

14. Other Hormones Monitored by the Hypothalamus

15. Instinct Theory: Hunger(genetic programming; evolutionary perspective) • Due to famines, we are programmed to overeat and to fail to recognize when we’ve reached fullness (http://www.npr.org/blogs/thesalt/2012/01/28/145865238/deception-diet-how-optical-illusions-can-trick-your-appetite?sc=17&f=1007Deception%20Diet:%20How%20Optical%20Illusions%20Can%20Trick%20Your%20Appetiteby%20Ted%20Burnham%20-%20January%2028,%202012) • Taste Preferences • Universal, genetic preference for sweet and salty • More likely to quickly develop food aversions associated with illness • Dislike unfamiliar, novel foods • Inherited taste genes • Supertasters = increase survival in unsafe environments (poisonous plants) • Nontasters = increase survival in safe environments

16. Drive-Reduction: Hunger(homeostasis) • Biological Need (Food)  Psychological Drive (Hunger)  Drive-Reducing Behavior (Eat) • Set Point = stable internal balance (homeostasis) ; maintain a precisely balanced cycle of fueling and burning • Glucose Set Point (short term) Food = Glucose = Hunger  Eat Food = Glucose = Hunger  Stop Eating • Body Fat Set Point (15% Body Weight = fat) Fat Stores (below 15%) = Body Metabolism = Food Consumption = Energy Outputs

17. Incentive Theory: Hunger(learning) • Creatures of dietary habit; feed us at 8 am, 1 pm, and 7 pm, and we learn to get hungry as those hours approach  ghrelin is produced in response to meal schedules and the sight or smell of food • Weight-obsessed society – Fiji • Externals—people whose eating is trig­gered more by the presence of food than by internal factors. Girls at camp who could not resist munching readily visible M&M's, even after a full meal

18. Optimal Arousal: Hunger • Adolescent pranks: eat as much hot sauce; drink a gallon of milk • Try novel food • http://www.npr.org/2012/05/03/151962981/taste-testing-the-hot-sauce-spectrum?sc=emaf

19. Maslow’s Hierarchy: Hunger • Semistarvation experiment by Ancel Keys. Consistent with Maslow's idea of a needs hierarchy, the men became obsessed with food. They talked food. They day­dreamed food. They collected recipes, read cookbooks, and feasted their eyes on delectable forbidden foods. At the same time, they lost interest in sex and social activities. They became preoccupied with their unfulfilled basic needs.

20. Anorexia: Biological Causes • Ghrelin - ignore it or body has become resistant to it • Settling point - if diets are maintained, body weight eventually stabilizes at a new lower level. (EX: semistarved patients –their bodies stabilized at about 25% below their starting weights). • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U-N2Cv52gB8

21. Anorexia: Psychological Causes • Faulty body image– internal picture of his or her exterior form is exaggerated • Obsessed with control and performance • Information processing Fig. 12.6 Women with abnormal eating habits were asked to rate their body shape on a scale similar to the one you see here. As a group, they chose ideal figures much thinner than what they thought their current weights were. (Most women say they want to be thinner than they currently are, but to a lesser degree than women with eating problems.) Notice that the women with eating problems chose an ideal weight that was even thinner than what they thought men prefer. This is not typical of most women. In this study, only women with eating problems wanted to be thinner than what they thought men find attractive

22. Anorexia: Social Causes • Insecurity; lack sound attachment relationship (feeling safe and accepted) •  Challenging family settings • Culture – Fiji; introduction of TV, the number of schoolgirls who vomited to control weight increased from 3% to 15% in 3 years. • Media’s interpretation of beauty ideal.

23. Obesity: Biological Causes • Ghrelin = Hunger (gastic-bypass surgery reduces ghrelin production, helping obese patients feel full longer) • Leptin = Hunger (a small few have a congenital deficit in leptin production or function - instructions to make leptin is defective in ob mice; others do not respond to its signals normally because they have become overexposed and thus resistant - db mice have defective leptin receptors) • Activity of PPARs (receptors regulating energy consumption = fat burned (obese people may have slow working PPARs)  • Malfunction of MC-4 receptor • Reward Deficiency Syndrome  • Tumors in VMH cause overeating • Settling Point – if we persist in eating too much our body may adjust to the new rate of intake, and the set point may move to a higher level

24. Obesity: Psychological Causes • Use food as comfort or reward  carbs help boost levels of serotonin which has calming effects. • Time of Day + Memory of Last Meal • Externals = sight and smell of food can trigger hunger and eating, in part by stimulating a rise in insulin level. Eating is triggered more by the presence of food than by internal factors. Girls at camp who could not resist munching on M&M’s even after a full meal.

25. Obesity: Social Causes • Oversized meal proportions • Eating fast in fast paced culture. Eat in front of tv, tv dinners which have many calories • No exercise • Commercials on dieting and food – mixed messages • Learned habits- people consume more food when with others than alone.

26. Summary

27. Theories of Motivation • Instinct • Engage in sexual behavior to procreate • Sexual orientation is linked to genetic influences (i.e., maternal immune response affects fetus; hypothalamus cell cluster is larger in heterosexual men; exposure to testosterone or estrogen also affects fetus) • Mate selection: • Men universally use good looks • Women universally use social status • Drive-Reduction • Biological Need (Sex)  Psychological Drive (Sexual Desire)  Drive-Reducing Behavior (Have Sex) (*however, sex is not a true example of a need because if we do not have it, we do not die) • Set Point = stable internal balance (homeostasis) • Increase in testosterone in both sexes  increase in sexual desire • Hypothalamus monitors variations in blood hormone levels and can extinguish sexual activity and activate it • Sexual response cycle = excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution • Incentive • External stimuli can trigger sexual arousal. See, hear, or read erotic material = increase in arousal and fantasies • Sexual behavior is influenced by rewards (affection, love, feeling of belonging) or punishments (fear of STDs or pregnancy) • Optimal Arousal • Risky sexual behavior • Maslow’s Hierarchy • Fulfill physiological needs before you can fulfill psychological needs. Some people might use sex to fulfill esteem and belonging needs

28. Sexual Motivation Sexual motivation is nature’s clever way of making people procreate, enabling our species to survive. Masters and Johnson (1966) describe the human sexual response cycle as consisting of four phases:

29. Hormones and Sexual Behavior Sex hormones effect the development of sexual characteristics and (especially in animals) activate sexual behavior. Sex hormones may have milder affects on humans than on animals. Women are more likely to have sex when close to ovulation (increased testosterone), and men show increased testosterone levels when socializing with women. Female animals “in heat” express peak levels of estrogen. Female receptivity may be heightened with estrogen injections. Levels of testosterone remain relatively constant in males, so it is difficult to manipulate and activate sexual behavior. Castration, which reduces testosterone levels, lowers sexual interest.

30. Contraception Factors that reduce contraception use by teens • Ignorance: Canadian teen girls do not have the right ideas about birth control methods. • Guilt Related to Sexual Activity: Guilt reduces sexual activity, but it also reduces the use of contraceptives. • Minimal Communication: Many teenagers feel uncomfortable discussing contraceptives. • Alcohol Use: Those who use alcohol prior to sex are less likely to use contraceptives. • Mass Media: The media’s portrayal of unsafe extramarital sex decreases the use of contraceptives.

31. Sexually Transmitted Infections Factors that reduce sexual activity in teens. • High Intelligence: Teens with higher intelligence are likely to delay sex. • Religiosity: Religious teens and adults often reserve sex for a marital commitment. • Father Presence: A father’s absence from home can contribute to higher teen sexual activity. • Learning Programs: Teens who volunteer and tutor in programs dedicated to reducing teen pregnancy are less likely to engage in unsafe sex.

32. Sexual Orientation: Biology

33. Hormones & Sexual Orientation • Animals: Exposure of a fetus to testosterone results in females (sheep) exhibiting homosexual behavior. • Humans: Exposure of a male or female fetus to female hormones results in an attraction to males. Prenatal hormones affect sexual orientation during critical periods of fetal development. Homosexual Heterosexual male Heterosexual female

34. Sexual Motivation Hunger responds to a need. If we do not eat, we die. In that sense, sex is not a need because if we do not have sex, we do not die.

35. Theories of Motivation • Instinct • Desire for significant accomplishment to aid survival or better take care of our young. • Drive-Reduction • Does not apply because achievement does not appear to satisfy any physiological need • Incentive • Moderately difficult tasks • Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation • Flow • Overjustification effect • Leadership Style (Task vs. Social; Theory X vs. Theory Y) • Optimal Arousal • Yerkes-Dodson Law or Social Facilitation/Deterrence • Maslow’s Hierarchy • Fulfill physiological needs before you can fulfill psychological needs. Some people might use achievement to fulfill esteem, belonging needs, or self-actualization Industrial/Organizational Psych (Personnel, Organizational, Human Factors) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u6XAPnuFjJc

36. Achievement Motivation People with a high need to achieve tend to: choose tasks that allow for success, yet still require skill and effort, and keep persisting until success is achieved. Choose moderately difficult tasks – not hard or easy Achievement motivation is defined as a desire for significant accomplishment. Why does one person become more motivated to achieve than another? Grit: passionate dedication to an ambitious, long-term goal Emotional roots: learning to associate achievement with positive emotions. Cognitive roots: learning to attribute achievements to one’s own competence, thus raising expectations of oneself. http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?SID=mail&articleID=18C98D80-E7F2-99DF-3BC33A063794BB37&chanID=sa003

37. Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychology • Personnel Psychology: Studies the principles of selecting and evaluating workers. Match people with jobs, by identifying and placing well-suited candidates. • Identifying people’s strengths (analytical, disciplined, eager to learn etc.) and matching them to a particular area of work is the first step toward workplace effectiveness. • Interviewers are confident in their ability to predict long-term job performance (interviewer illusion). However, informal interviews are less informative than standardized tests and structure interviews. • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u6XAPnuFjJc • Organizational Psychology: Studies how work environments and management styles influence worker motivation, satisfaction, and productivity. Modify jobs and supervision in ways that boost morale and productivity. Leadership styles (task vs. social, theory x vs. theory y) • Human Factors Psychology: Explores how machines and environments can be designed to fit our natural perception. Applies psychological principles to the workplace.

38. Mom: “I’ll give you $5 for every A.’’ Controlling reward Child: “As long as she pays, I’ll study.’’ Extrinsic motivation Mom: “Your grades were great! Let’s celebrate by going out for dinner.’’ Informative reward Child: “I love doing well.’’ Intrinsic motivation Rewards Affect Motivation Overjustification Effect

39. Flow & Rewards Flow is the experience between no work and a lot of work. Flow marks immersion into one’s work. Person is in a completely involved, focused state of consciousness, with diminished awareness of self and time, resulting from optimal engagement of one’s skills People who “flow” in their work (artists, dancers, composers etc.) are driven less by extrinsic rewards (external rewards - money, praise, promotion) and more by intrinsic rewards (internal, personal enjoyment).

40. Yerkes-Dodson Law • Arousal response - pattern of physiological change that helps prepare the body for “fight or flight” • muscles tense, heart rate and breathing increase, release of endorphins, focused attention • can be helpful or harmful • in general, high arousal is beneficial for instinctive, well-practiced or physical tasks and harmful for novel, creative, or careful judgment tasks Performance peaks at lower levels of arousal for difficult tasks, and at higher levels for easy or well-learned tasks

41. Motivational Conflict • Motivational goals sometimes conflict with one another. When something attracts us, we tend to approach it; when something repels us, we tend to avoid it. Different combinations of these tendencies can produce three basic types of conflict: • Approach-approach conflict: occurs when we face two attractive alternatives and selecting one means losing the others (EX: choice between two desirable colleges) • Avoidance-avoidance conflict: occurs when we must choose between two undesirable alternatives (EX: studying boring material for an exam or skip studying and fail) • Approach-avoidance conflict: involves being attracted to and repelled by the same goal (EX: desiring a relationship but fearing the possibility of future rejection).

42. Interviewer Illusion: Interviewers often overrate their discernment. Intention vs. Habits: Intensions matter, but long- lasting habits matter even more. Successful Employees: Interviewers are more likely to talk about those employees that turned out successful. Presumptions about Candidates: Interviewers presume (wrongly) that what we see (candidate) is what we get. Preconceptions: An interviewer’s prior knowledge about the candidate may affect her judgment. Interviews Structured Interview: A formal and disciplined way of gathering information from the interviewee. Structured interviews pinpoint strengths (attitudes, behaviors, knowledge, and skills). The personnel psychologist may do the following: Analyze the job. Script questions. Train the interviewer.

43. Different organizational demands need different kinds of leaders. Leadership varies from a boss-focused style to a democratic style. Leadership Style • Task Leadership: Involves setting standards, organizing work, and focusing on goals. • Social Leadership: Involves mediating conflicts and building high achieving teams. • Whether managers favor a participative/democratic approach depends not only on their personality but also on their assumptions about human motivation: • Theory X: Managers assume that workers are basically lazing, error-prone, and extrinsically motivated by money. Thus, they need simple tasks, close monitoring, and incentives to work harder • Theory Y: Managers assume that people are intrinsically motivated to work for reasons beyond money – to promote self-esteem, enjoy satisfying relations with others, and fulfill their potential. Thus, given enough freedom and challenge, employees will strive to demonstrate their competence and creativity.

44. Satisfaction & Engagement Employee engagement means that the worker: • Knows what is expected of him. • Has what is needed to do the work. • Feels fulfilled at work. • Has opportunities to do his best. • Thinks himself to be a part of something significant. • Has opportunities to learn and develop. Capital-Journal/ David Eulitt/ AP/ Wide World Photos Engaged workers are more productive than non-engaged workers at different stores of the same chain.