DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

1. DEVELOPMENTALPSYCHOLOGY

2. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT • CONCEPTION: • SPERM + EGG = ZYGOTE >> 2 WEEKS>> EMBRYO >> 9 WEEKS >> FETUS (born around 40 weeks) • While in utero, the embryo can be harmed by various substances: smoke, alcohol (fetal alcohol syndrome), drugs, and disease (flu, STDs, etc.) Baby at 15 weeks:

3. PHYSICAL & MENTAL DEVELOPMENT • NEWBORN-CHILDHOOD • Newborn reflexes: rooting, startle, pain avoidance, sucking • Preferences: human voices, human faces, contrast, 8-12” range (distance from breast to face), mother’s smell & voice • Maturation sets the course, experience adjusts it. • Maturation: genetically determined, naturally unfolding course of growth • Developing neural connections explain lack of memories prior to age 3. • Motor development: all roll, sit, crawl, then walk (maturation not modeling) • MENTAL DEVELOPMENT • Schemas-concept or framework that organizes and interprets information. • Assimilate-interpreting one’s new experience in terms of one’s existing schemas. • Accommodation-adapting one’s current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information.

4. PHYSICAL & MENTAL DEVELOPMENT • TEMPERAMENT • Stable (?) individual differences in quality and intensity of emotional reaction, activity level, attention, and emotional self-regulation. Many researchers believe this to be the cornerstone of adult personality. Some debate the stability of temperament. • Thomas & Chess, longitudinal study, initiated in 1956, found that temperament is not fixed and can be influenced by parenting. • 3 types of children • Easy- generally happy and adaptable • Difficult-reacts negatively & intensely, not good with change • Slow-to-warm-up-inactive, mildly reactive, negative in mood, adjusts slowly

5. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT • CHILDHOOD-PUBERTY • Maturation and experience influences all stages of development (cognitive, social, physical, etc.) • Adolescence is the period between childhood and adulthood and begins at puberty. It is getting to be a longer period of time due to: • Nutrition/environment and earlier physical development (hormones added to foods??) • Extended education, mandatory secondary ed. & college becoming more accessible >> delaying careers and families • Puberty begins around 11 for girls and 13 for boys, primary & secondary sex characteristics develop. • Puberty tends to refer to the physical changes; adolescence encompasses both physical & social changes.

6. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT • ADULTHOOD • Post-adolescence until death. • Muscular strength, reaction time, sensory keenness, & cardiac output peak during the 20’s. As with other life stages, physiological changes can impact psychological states. For example, loos of physical capabilities can influence one’s mental stage.

7. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT • AS WE AGE…. • Significant physiological change for women is menopause around age 50. (Has not been found to be as psychologically dramatic as once perceived.) • More antibodies to fight off common ailments, but more susceptible to life-threatening diseases such as cancer. • On average, women live 4 yrs. longer than men; many factors influence this average, though…

8. SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT-FREUD • Disclaimer: Yes, Freud truly believed that all humans from infancy until death were driven by animalistic urges such as aggression and sex. Though it is difficult for us to imagine infants having these types of drives, Freud believed they existed. Keep in mind the context of his research, late 1800’s, “hysterical” women, and no psychological research to support or refute his claims.

9. SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT-FREUD • ORAL STAGE (Infancy-~18 months) • Infant “pleasure seeking” is focused on the mouth. Sucking on a breast or bottle provides nourishment but also comfort and pleasure. Pacifiers do the same. • Someone who becomes “fixated” in this stage may show such qualities as passive dependence or an exaggerated denial of dependence (fiercely independent), excessive smoking, eating, or gum chewing may satisfy infant deprivation.

10. SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT-FREUD • ANAL STAGE (~18 mo – 3 years): • Infant pleasure seeking is focused on the process of elimination (going to the bathroom). Child is learning control over their body functions and the role this place is social development. • Those who fixate in this stage may be overly controlling (anal retentive) or overly non-controlling (messy/disorganized).

11. SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT-FREUD • PHALLIC STAGE (3-6 years): • Pleasure zone shifts to the genitals. Freud’s focus was on a boy’s desire for his mother but also guilt and fear of the father possibly castrating him known as the Oedipus Complex. Though others later speculated the same for girls, the Electra Complex, Freud did not believe it existed. He believed that girls suffered from “penis envy.”

12. SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT-FREUD • LATENCY PERIOD (~6-puberty): • Sexual desires are suppressed; children begin to explore their world and learn new things, especially socially. (A lot happening cognitively as well!) Freud speculated that sexual impulses were being redirected into a more socially acceptable manner (sublimation) onto learning new things.

13. SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT-FREUD • GENITAL STAGE (adolescence): • Sexual desires are renew with the onset of puberty and the development of primary and secondary sex characteristics. With greater cognitive development, individuals can understand others’ feelings, and giving and receiving of pleasure is rewarding. Freud believes that personality development ends here.

14. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT • PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT • SENSORIMOTOR STAGE (BIRTH – 2 YEARS): experience the world through the senses (taste, touch, sound, sense of body, movement) • Child will develop the concept of object permanence • Before they develop it, it is “out of sight, out of mind” Peek-a-boo is fun! • After they develop it they will look for a hidden object. • Children will also develop stranger anxiety and separation anxiety.

15. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT • PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT • PREOPERATIONAL STAGE (~2-6 YEARS OLD): Preschool aged, are very egocentric (self-centered), have difficulty doing mental tasks, Lacks the concept of Conservation: see video • http://www.teachertube.com/view_video.php?viewkey=c95fcba76d0fe0429563 • Begins developing theory of mind, being able to see things from other’s perspectives. (Individuals with autism often struggle with this developmental stage.) See videos: Vsauce “Is your red the same as my red?”

16. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT • PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT • CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE (~7-11 YEARS): Problem solving becomes more mental, have grasped conservation, get jokes, understand mathematical transformations (+/- and x/÷ are opposite operations), can follow logic but not hypothetical thinking http://www.teachertube.com/view_video.php?viewkey=d26085ee3fad631ebb37

17. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT • PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT • FORMAL OPERATIONAL (~12 TO ADULT): Reasoning becomes more abstract, imagine alternative realities, hypothetical thinking; Do you remember when you first GOT algebra? This subject is often presented at a time when we are developing formal operational thinking and can therefore be challenging for some students. Research shows cognitive development unfolds basically the same for all, but researchers today feel it is more continuous than Piaget once thought. That means you can be blend of the stages, not 100% one stage or the other.

18. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT • VYGOTSKY’S PERSPECTIVE • A child’s cognitive development is shaped by social, cultural, and historical forces; humankind is improvable by building on the knowledge prior generations have gleaned from their experiences. Advances lead to higher intellectual functioning of later generations. • Differed from Piaget in terms of “egocentric speech” in that he believed it was the child’s way of problem solving not just an expression of egocentrism. • Zone of Proximal Development: The difference between the level of intellectual or academic tasks children can handle on their own and the level of problem they can manage with assistance from an adult.

19. MNEMONICS TO HELP… • FREUD • O • A • P • L • G • PIAGET • S • P • C • F

20. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT • ATTACHMENT http://www.teachertube.com/view_video.php?viewkey=79ac9b2ae91a8b47927b Harry Harlow’s research in the 1950’s showed us that feeding wasn’t the primary process for building attachment. Body contact is key…see “Harlow monkeys” on Youtube.com; baby monkeys would spend more time on the cloth monkey than on the wire/food monkey. This helps explain why strong attachments are formed between infants and people and objects that are not involved in feeding the child. Critical period exists after birth for attachments to be made and imprinting to occur…Lorenz. (More common in animals than humans.) “Fly Away Home” movie

21. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT • ATTACHMENT IN HUMANS (Ainsworth) • “Strange situation” experiment where brief separation and reunion between child and caregiver occurs and the child’s response is measured. 4 patterns emerged: • Secure attachment (may cry when separated, but that ends when reunited) • Insecure attachment: • Avoidant attachment (unresponsive to separation and reunion) • Resistant attachment (clingy prior to separation and respond in anger at reunion) • Disorganized attachment (at reunion displayed confused/contradictory behaviors) • Responsive parents often have securely attached children; secure vs. insecure may be a product of innate personality, though. • Verdict is still out on “at home” child care vs. “day-care.” People have strong opinions about both, but no conclusive evidence support one over the other if the quality of care is equitable.

22. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT • PARENTING (Baumrind is the primary researcher) • STYLES: Authoritarian (rules & obedience) Permissive (submissive, child makes rules) Authoritative (democratic, provide choices) Uninvolved (neglectful, unresponsive) Authoritavite/democratic style is correlated with positive outcomes such as self-confidence, self-control, social and moral maturity, academic achievement, etc. Baumrind found children of permissive parents were often very immature with poor impulse control, and children with authoritarian parents, though well behaved & high achieving, were sometimes anxious and/or withdrawn. At its extreme, the uninvolved parent borders on maltreatment/neglect and may result in lack of interest, drug abuse, poor emotional self-regulation & school performance

23. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: ERIKSON’S STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT • Trust vs Mistrust (infant)Needs maximum comfort with minimal uncertaintyto trust himself/herself, others, and the environment • Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt (toddler)Work to develop a sense of personal control over self; failure results in shame • Initiative vs Guilt (preschooler)Work to develop a sense of control over environment Begins to initiate, not imitate, but disapproval can lead to feelings of guilt.

24. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: ERIKSON’S STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 4. Industry vs Inferiority (School-Age Child)Tries to develop a sense of self-worth by refining social & academic skills; failure can lead to feelings of inferiority • Identity vs Role Confusion (Adolescent)Tries integrating many roles (child, sibling, student, athlete, worker) into a self-image, influenced by role models and peer pressure 6. Intimacy vs Isolation (Young Adult )Learns to make personal commitments to others

25. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: ERIKSON’S STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 7. Generativityvs Stagnation (Middle-Age Adult) Seeks satisfaction through productivity in career, family, and civic interests; failure results in shallow involvement with the world 8. Integrity vs Despair (Older Adult) Reviews life accomplishments, deals with lossand preparation for death • www.thepsychfiles.com (A clever way of remembering Erikson’s 8 stages!)

26. MARCIA: ADOLESCENT IDENTITY CRISIS • Identity diffusion: Not exploring, not deciding • Have not given any serious thought to making important decisions & have not clear identity; identity is significantly influenced by others. • Identity foreclosure: Not exploring, decisions made by others • Have made a firm commitment about issues but is based on other’s opinions, not own.

27. MARCIA: ADOLESCENT IDENTITY CRISIS • Identity moratorium: Exploring but not deciding • Seriously considering issues but have not made a commitment on any matters facing him/her • Identity achievement: Exploring issues and making decisions • Has considered many possibilities and has committed himself/herself to important life matters

28. MORAL DEVELOPMENT • On your index card answer the following: • According to the article, what is the “paradox” of humanity? • Is empathy unique to humans? Dilemma questions: The runaway trolley: An runaway trolley is heading down the tracks toward five workmen who can’t be warned in time. You are standing near a switch that would divert the trolley onto a siding, but there is a single unsuspecting workman there. Would you throw the switch, killing one to save 5? Suppose the workman is on a bridge with you and you could save the men only by pushing him onto the tracks?

29. MORAL DEVELOPMENT • KOHLBERG • PRECONVENTIONAL (0-6 YEARS OLD) • Obey to either avoid punishment or to receive rewards. Reward could be something tangible or doing something that feels good or right (altruistic). The reference group is ultimately the self.

30. MORAL DEVELOPMENT • KOHLBERG • CONVENTIONAL: (7-12 YEARS) • With cognitive development comes the ability to take other’s perspective and to uphold laws and rules. Because of this fact, laws and rules shape this stage. Actions may be motivated by social approval or to maintain social order.

31. MORAL DEVELOPMENT • KOHLBERG • POSTCONVENTIONAL (13 YEARS +): • This stage of moral development parallels formal operational cognitive development and abstract thinking. This stage allows someone to affirm agreed upon rights and ethical principles, even in the case that these principles go against the law. Some may never reach this stage. (This stage has not been found to be universal in all cultures or all genders (Gilligan), so it is controversial in its universality.)

32. MORAL DEVELOPMENT • On the back of your index card, discuss the following 2 points: • Describe the primary source of your moral decision making. • Do you agree that post conventional moral decision should be consider the higher level of moral decision making. Justify your answer.

33. KUBLER-ROSS • STAGES OF DYING: Research based on interviews of terminally ill patients • DENIAL: A belief that a mistake has been made, seeks alternate opinions, likely does not want to discuss seriousness of the situation • ANGER: Reality is recognized, often patient become angry/resentful and will lash out at others, often motivated by the unfairness of the situation • BARGAINING: Some acceptance is achieved, will attempt to delay the inevitable, may bargain with a higher power, plans to attend special events or complete special tasks.

34. KUBLER-ROSS • STAGES OF DYING • DEPRESSION: When the illness intrudes on the bargaining stage, a deep sadness will often set in; also related to physical dependence on others and perceived loss of physical beauty or strength as a result of the disease. • ACCEPTANCE: Often the individual reaches a point of understanding of the inevitable, will often be tired, unemotional, may appear to just be waiting for the end. Limitations to her research: She only studied those with terminal cancer, and not all progressed through these stages. These are not universal, but they are an apparent trend.

35. METHODS OF RESEARCH • To study developmental psychology, various methods can be used: • Longitudinal studies: same population over a long period of time is ideal, but not always feasible • Cross-sectional studies: samples taken from different populations of different age groups, more affordable and feasible, but many confounding variables (individual differences)