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Explore the causes, major events, and lasting effects of the Crusades in Europe, including religious tensions, political motivations, and significant outcomes. Learn about the various crusades, their impact on Christian-Muslim relations, and the role of different European powers during this era.
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Third Phase: The Crusades • The Crusades aroused suspicion and ultimately violence between the East and West as Latins (Franks) established kingdoms in the East. • Ultimately, the final break between East and West was the fourth Crusade for which only recently (2001) Pope John Paul II apologized.
Origins of the Crusades • The rise of the Seljuk Turks, who captured Jerusalem in 1070, worried the Byzantine Empire. • They appealed to the Roman west for assistance as they reported the persecution of Christians and desecration of holy places. • The West was eager to help for a number of reasons, including piety, wealth and land.
Pope Urban II • In 1095, Pope Urban II at the Council of Claremont in France declared a general indulgence to all who would take up a “holy pilgrimage” against the Islamic infidels. • He demonized Islam: demon worshippers • Accused Muslims of atrocities (forced circumcision, destruction of churches, bizarre tortures)
Indulgence • Crusaders would wear the sign of the cross on their armor/garments. • Whoever died on the pilgrimage would have “immediate remission of sin” and have a martyr’s entrance into heaven. • They could keep what they conquered as the “spoils of Egypt.”
Major Crusades • First (1096): Knights from France, England and Germany recaptured Jerusalem in 1099 and established the “Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem.” • Second (1147-49): Louis VII of France and Conrad III of the Holy Roman Empire attempted to regain territory in Asia Minor but were decimated and Saladin recaptured all lost territory except for Tyre. • Third (1189-92): Emperor Frederick, Philip II of France and Richard I of England failed to regain Jerusalem though they retook Cyprus and held Acre on the coast of Palestine. • Fourth (1202-04): The crusaders stopped at Constantinople, sacked it and established a Latin kingdom which existed untill 1261. • Fifth (1228-1244): Regained Jerusalem and then lost it again. By 1291 all Crusader lands in the East were lost (Acre was the last Crusader city).
Disastrous Crusades • “Peasant’s Crusade”—immediately after Urban II’s speech in Claremont, a grassroots movement headed for the East of 10,000 men. Ultimately, they were annihilated by the Turks outside of Constantinople. • “Children’s Crusade” (1212)—20,000 children journeyed to the East. Many died on the way, but those who reached Marseilles in France were offered free passage to Palestine. Instead they were drowned or enslaved in Tunisia or Egypt.
Other Significant Crusades • The expulsion of Islam from the Spanish peninsula in 1492. • Extension of Christianity into the Baltic region. • Danish Crusade into Prussia • Swedish Crusade into Lithuania. • Constant Persecution of the Jews in Europe in the context of this crusading spirit. • Crusades Against Heretics in regions of Western Europe.
Net Effect of Crusades • Crusades changed Muslim perceptions of Christians who were now perceived negatively as land-hungry and cruel barbarians very different from themselves. • Crusades encouraged commercial activity to the East, but ultimately it was Muslim scholars who influenced the West more through Spain and Sicily. • Crusades brought confusion to the Byzantine empire and hastened its demise as well as distracting Western European rulers from their real problems at home. The militarism of the Crusades weakened the Byzantine Empire. • The Crusades enhanced the prestige as well as spiritual and political power of the Papacy.
Relation of Byzantine and Roman Churches Early in the Crusades • Byzantine at times supported the Crusaders though the Crusaders often thought they were betrayed by them. • Crusaders installed Latin Patriarchs at Antioch and Jerusalem. • Local believers did not accept the Latin Patriarch and there was a local schism in the church at Antioch. • Rival bishops claimed the same throne and the division between East and West was clear—two hostile congregations existed in the same city.
The Fourth Crusade (1201-1204) • It was originally designed to conquer Jerusalem through an invasion of Egypt. Instead, it sacked Constantinople and set up a Latin Kingdom. • In 1198, Pope Innocent III called for a new crusade—western Europe ignored him. But some Germans, French and Italians were interested. • The Crusaders approached Venice for assistance. • Venice agreed to build ships to transport 33,000 Crusaders and 4,500 horses at a set price, but only 12,000 Crusaders came to Venice.
Problem • The Crusaders, however, could not pay the Venetians for the boats and the Venetians barricaded them on the island of Lido. • Venice proposed that the Crusaders attack Zara in Dalmatia (under the protection of Hungary) to acquire the needed money and as partial payment since Venice claimed the city as its own. Some refused, but the Papal legate endorsed the proposal. • Innocent III, however, excommunicated the Crusaders for their attack on the city of Zara.
Constantinople • The deposed Emperor Issac II Angelus’ son, Alexius, conspired with the Crusaders to topple the new Emperor Alexis III. • He promised money, restoration of communion with Rome through submission to its primacy, and to join the Crusade to Egypt. • The Crusaders went from Zara to Constantinople though some soldiers refused to participate. • The fleet arrived in June, 1203 and installed Alexius as Emperor (Alexius IV).
Problem • Alexius IV melted valuable icons in order to extract gold and silver. This was desecration in the eyes of the public. • Crusaders were responsible for the “Great Fire” that destroyed 1/5 of Constantinople in 1204. • Alexius IV was assassinated and in reprisal the Crusaders sacked the city for three days. Roman clergy encouraged the Crusaders by telling them that “the Greeks were worse than Jews.” • A new Latin Kingdom in Constantinople was divided between Venice and the Germans. None of them ever made it to the Holy Land. • They also installed a Latin Patriarch of Constantinople—but both the kingdom and Patriarch were regained by the Greeks in 1261.
Innocent III to the Crusaders "You vowed to liberate the Holy Land but you rashly turned away from the purity of your vow when you took up arms not against Saracens but Christians… The Greek Church has seen in the Latins nothing other than an example of affliction and the works of Hell, so that now it rightly detests them more than dogs.” In both 2001 and 2004, Pope John Paul II expressed regret and distress over the incident.
The Psychology of 1204 • Westerns do not recognize how deep the psychological hurt is over the sack of Constantinople in 1204. • It engendered or confirmed intense national hatred—indignation against western aggression and sacrilege. • Both East and West looked upon each other as “profane” and ungodly. • Barlaam of Clabria told a papal court in 1339: “what separates the Greeks from you is not so much a difference in dogma as the hatred of the Greeks for the Latins brought on by the wrongs they have suffered.”
East Greek Language Classical Culture Original Nicene Creed Icons Mystical Emphasis A Cappella Music Patriarch Petrarchy Leavened Bread Vernacular Liturgy Communion/Theosis West Latin Language Germanic Culture Filioque Addition Statues and Altars Legal Emphasis Musical Instruments Roman Primacy Unleavened Bread Latin Liturgy Penance/Forgiveness The Great Schism: 858-1204
Attempt at Reunion I:Council of Lyons (1274) • Emperor Michael VIII (1259-1282), who recovered Constantinople in 1261, took the initiative for union. • Michael wanted support from Pope Gregory X against Charles of Anjou who ruled Sicily. • A Council met in 1274 in Lyons, France. • Orthodox representatives agreed to recognize • Papal claims, and • Filioque
Reunion Rejected • The clergy and laity, of both Constantinople and Bulgaria, fiercely opposed the conditions of reunion. • The Emperor’s sister said: “Better that that my brother’s Empire should perish than the purity of the Orthodox faith.” • The union was formally repudiated by Michael’s successor and Michael was denied a Christian burial for his apostasy.
Pope Nicholas III • He sought compliance to the Council of Lyon through legates sent to Constantinople in 1278. • Nicholas wrote to his legates: “unity of faith does not permit diversity in its confessors or in confession…especially in the chanting of the symbol…The Roman church, after due deliberation, desires that the symbol be chanted uniformly with the addition of the filioque by both Latins and Greeks.” • Also: “the patriarch and rest of the clergy of every fortress, village, or any other place, all and each singly, recognize, accept, and confess with a sworn oath the truth of the faith and primacy of the Roman church.” • Further the Greek clergy were to seek from Rome the reconfirmation of their offices.
Attempt at Reunion II:Council of Florence (1438-1439) • This was attended by Emperor John VIII (1425-1448) and the Patriarch of Constantinople as well as representatives (or proxies) of all the Eastern Patriarchs. • Even Isidore, Metropolitan of Kiev and all Russia, attended the Council. • It had the potential of a truly ecumenical council (even according to Eastern standards). • There were intense theological debates and discussions, and a genuine attempt was made at reunion.
Occasion of the Council • The Byzantine Empire had been severely weakened by the Latin Crusades and Kingdom of 1204-1261. • Byzantium endured two major civil wars in the 1320s and in the 1350s. • The Turks conquered Serbia and Bulgaria. They established a capital in Adrianople in 1365. • In 1387 Byzantium became a vassal of the Turks.
Agreement at the Council • Mutuality was rooted in two primary concerns: • Consensus on doctrine • Respect for legitimate rites and traditions of each. • The Agreement: • The East accepted filioque • The East accepted the doctrine of purgatory • East and West accepted diversity on Eucharistic bread, though unleavened bread was encouraged. • The East accepted papal claims to primacy (though the language is rather ambiguous).
Failed Reunion • While the last two Emperors (John VIII and Constantine XI—the 80th from Constantine) maintained the agreement and were supported by Patriarchs of Constantinople (though not formally declared till 1452) • popular piety rejected it (one Patriarch fled the city in fear) • most monks opposed it • The hero of Orthodoxy was Mark of Ephesus (died 1444). He defended Orthodoxy at the Council, refused to sign it, and opposed it upon his return to his episcopal See. He led the opposition to the Council (even suffering imprisonment). • Grand Duke Lucas Notaras remarked: “I would rather see the Muslim turban in the midst of the city than the Latin cross.”
Russia Rejects the Union • Isidore, Metropolitan of Kiev and all of Russia, signed the union decree. • Previously, Isidore had been an envoy to the West. • Isidore was appointed by the Patriarch of Constantinople in 1437 despite the selection of Jonas (a Russian) by a synod of Russian bishops and Grand Prince Basil II. • Isidore returned to Moscow in 1441. • Isidore led a procession into the city with the Latin cross, prayed for Pope Eugenius before the Patriarch of Constantinople, and read the proclamation of union. • Isidore was appointed a Cardinal in the Western church. • Grand Prince Basil rejects the union along with the Russian clergy. • In 1448, Basil appoints his own Metropolitan elected by Russian bishops.
The Fall of Constantinople (1453) • Despite the “union,” the West did not offer any military assistance to the Constantinople. • After a seven week siege, the Turks entered the city on May 29. • The last Christian service was held at Hagia Sophia that morning—Roman Catholics and Orthodox both present. • The Emperor received communion that morning and then died on the walls of the city as he led his army in defense of Constantine’s city. • Hagia Sophia became a mosque—today it is a museum. • The Turks installed a new Patriarch (Gennadios Scholarius) in the city and his first act was to renounce the Union.
Russian Autocephalcy • From 988 to 1237, the Russian Metropolitans (bishops) were almost wholly Greek and selected by Constantinople. • From 1237 to 1332, the Russian Metropolitans were half Greek and half Russian—but still selected by Constantinople. • Kiev was sacked by the Mongols in 1240 and the center of Russian Christianity moved north. • From 1332 to 1448, the Russian Metropolitans were all Greek. • From to 1448 till the present, however, the Russian Metropolitans were Russian—and selected without reference to Constantinople. • Russia had rejected the union of the Council of Florence and regarded Constantinople as apostate. • Suspicion, and even hostility, would characterize the relationship between Moscow and the Greek Orthodox Church for several centuries.
St. Sergius of Radonezh (1314-1392) • The pattern of his life follows that of St. Anthony in the desert of Egypt. • Despite noble birth, he lived and dressed as a peasant. “I came to see a prophet,” said one visitor, “and you show me a beggar.” • The Monastery of the Holy Trinity was founded in the vast woods outside of Moscow. • He became an explorer, colonist and missionary • 40 other monasteries were founded during Sergius’ lifetime and evangelized the northern parts of Russia. • Sergius also encouraged the Grand Dukes of Russia and was a spiritual advisor to them. The Muscovite princes defeated the Mongols for the first time in a major battle at Kulikovo (1380). Sergius had blessed the Russian Prince Dmitry Donskoy prior to the battle.
Third Rome? I wish to add a few words on the present Orthodox Empire of our ruler; he is on earth the sole Emperor (Tsar) of the Christians, the leader of the Apostolic Church which stands no longer in Rome or in Constantinople, but in the blessed city of Moscow. She alone shines in the whole world brighter than the sun…All Christian Empires are fallen and in their stead stands alone the Empire of our ruler in accordance with the Prophetical books. Two Romes have fallen, but the third stands and a fourth there will not be. Philotheus of Pskov to Tsar Basil III (1510)
Third Rome? • While the Moscow Metropolitan became a Patriarch in 1589, the See has never ranked higher than the Petrarchy which is established in the Ecumenical councils. • The Orthodox church as a whole has never recognized Moscow as a “third Rome” in the sense of a legal successor to the Emperor and Patriarch of Constantinople. • Instead it is part of the embedded eccesiology of Orthodox that no single bishop has legal primacy but only ranks of “honor.”
The Hesychast Controversy • This was a controversy in which the West played no role. In fact, the West regarded the debate as one of the “speculative” or meaningless debates of Eastern mysticism. • However, it is central to understanding the nature of Eastern mysticism and its understanding of God.
Mystical Theology • The roots of Eastern mysticism are found in the Alexandrians (Clement and Origen from 200-250) but also in the Cappodocian Fathers (Gregory of Nyssa in particular). • This root is apophatic theology—the way of negation but also the way of union. • The way of negation provides an open door for union with God—a mystical knowledge of God. • This combination of negation and union is called “hesychast” (Greek word that means “quiet”). • A hesychast is one who devotes himself to inner recollection and prayer.
“The Prayer of the Heart” • St. Marcarius of Egypt (300-390) stressed the “prayer of the heart” where heart refers to the whole person—body and soul. • Three stages of prayer—attained by the grace of God. • Prayer of the lips—the recitation • Prayer of the intellect—the recollection/reflection • Prayer of the heart—the power of dwelling in the heart as if spontaneously offered by the whole person when the prayer fills the whole consciousness
The Jesus Prayer • “Lord Jesus Christ, Son of God, have mercy on me [a sinner].” • It was used as early as Diadochus of Photice (450s) and popularized by St. John Climacus of Mount Sinai (579-649). • By the 13th century, this prayer was linked with certain physical practices that were designed to further concentration • Head bowed • Chin resting on the chest • Eyes fixed on the heart
Grace For Union • For Hesychasts the Jesus prayer is a means to an end—it is a gracious gift of God through which believers may experience union with God. • St. Symeon the New Theologian (949-1022) speaks continually of the “divine light” or the “fire uncreated and invisible, without beginning and immaterial.” • Hesychasts believed the light so experienced is identical with the transfiguring light that the disciples experience in Jesus’ Transfiguration.
Orthodoxy: Greek or Mystical? • Barlaam the Calabarian, influenced by Greek classicism, argued that God can only be known or experienced indirectly. • He believed that the Hesychasts had violated the principle of apophatic theology and reduced their “Jesus prayer” to a materialistic mechanism for capturing the divine light. • He accused them of making God a material object—something created human beings could see with their own eyes.
The Problem • How can one reconcile apophatic theology with mystical theology? • If God is only known through negation, how can God be directly experienced? • St. Gregory Palamas (1296-1359), Archbishop of Thessalonica, was the great defender of the Hesychasts.
Important Distinctions • Distinction between the Essence of God and the Energies (work) of God. • Humanity was made for communion and theosis—it belongs to human nature to experience God. • This creaturely status includes the human body as part of the whole person. • The Incarnation means the God has “made the flesh an inexhaustible source of sanctification.” Christ took human flesh and saved the whole human, and the whole person (body and soul) prays to God.
Resolving the Tension • St. Basil of Ceasarea: “We know God from His energies, but we do not claim that we draw near to His essence. For his energies come down to us, but His essence remains unapproachable.” • God, through his energies, reveals himself but the energies are not something separate from God but God in action. • The energies (the grace of God) is the personal communion between God and humanity—a direct relationship. • Thus, we know God in his energies, but not in his essence. By theosis (involving mystical communion) we experience the eschatological transfiguration of the soul (encountering the divine light).
Eastern Mysticism • it It safeguards: • God’s Transcedence (we do not become identified with the essence or being of God); therefore, it is not a form of pantheism. • Human deification (theosis) where human can fulfill the vocation for which God create humanity. • This mysticism is also: • Christological—Jesus grounds this union with God. • Sacramental—the sacraments are a means to this union • Ecclesial—the liturgy is the comunal experience of this union.
Babylonian Captivity (1309-1374) • France’s Philip IV kidnapped Boniface VIII (1294-1303), and ultimately ensured the election of a French Archbishop as Clement V (1305-14). • In 1309, Clement V settled in Avignon rather than Rome. • All seven Popes at Avignon were French and most of the Cardinals had French sees.
The Avignon Papacy • Benedict XI, 1303-1304 • Clement V, 1305-1314 • John XXII, 1316-1334 (Taught it was heresy to teach that Jesus or apostles were poor) • Secular view of papacy • Devised 200 new methods to raise money
Avignon Papacy • Due to the lack of revenues from the Papal States in Italy, the Papacy sought to increase monetary interests in other ways. • Church taxation was increased. Edward III of England commented that the Pope was supposed “to lead the Lord’s sheep to pasture, not to fleece them.” • On a single day in 1328, the Avignon Papacy excommunicated 5 archbishops, 30 bishops and 46 abbots for defaulting on their ecclesiastical taxes. • This encouraged corruption and institutional insensitivity as the Papacy grew wealthier. • Some sees were left vacant so that the money would go directly to the Papacy rather than through the hands of another official.
The Great Schism • Gregory XI (1370-78) returned the papacy to Rome in 1377 and died two months later. • The new Pope, Urban VI, was Italian. The French cardinals declared his election invalid and elected Clement VII as a rival Pope. Urban VI then installed his own curia. • Urban VI was recognized by the Holy Roman Empire (Germany), England, Netherlands, Poland and Portugal. • Clement VII was recognized by France, Castile, Aragon, Scotland, Austria and Luxembourg.
The Conciliar Movement • Called to resolve problem of two popes • Council of Pisa convened 1409 • Called on two popes to resign • Appointed Alexander V, who died • Appointed John XXIII, no spirituality • Italian pope Gregory XII refused to resign • French pope Benedict XIII refused to resign • Now three popes!
Council of Constance, 1414-15 • Broader base of support • Ordered all three popes deposed • Arrested and imprisoned John XXIII • Gregory XII resigned • Emperor Sigismund asked Benedict • Benedict refused, 1417 deposed • Council elected Martin V • Condemned and executed John Hus
Councilarism • Council of Constance (1414-15) asserted the authority of Councils over Popes. • “This holy Council of Constance…declares…that it has its authority immediately from Christ, and that all men of every rank and condition, including the Pope himself, [are] bound to obey it in matters concerning the Faith, the abolition of the schism, and the reformation of the Church of God.” • They elected a new Pope (Martin V) and all agreed to it. • They dictated that Councils should held in five, then seven and then every ten years. • However, it took no action to reform the church, particularly papal taxations.
