Tertullian and African Christianity in the Third Century: Controversies and Implications

1. Lecture 8: Tertullian and African Christianity in Third Century Dr. Ann T. Orlando 26 September 2019 Tertullian, North African Christianity

2. Introduction • Montanists • Forgiveness of sins • Baptism in Early Church • Baptism and Martyrdom Controversies in Third Century African Church • Current Implications • Roman Liturgical Developments Tertullian, North African Christianity

3. Tertullian, North African Christianity

4. Montanism: Background • Started by Montus and two female disciples: Prisca and Maximillia • Originated in Phrygia in Asia Minor c. 160 • Quickly spread around Mediterranean, took strong root in North Africa • Seems to have died out or morphed into other movements (Donatism) by mid-Third Century in North Africa • Tertullian’s later works may be the only Montanists documents extant (On Flight, On Modesty, Against Praxeas) Tertullian, North African Christianity

5. Montanism: Beliefs • Believed in continuing Prophecy in Church through the action of Holy Spirit • Prophecy took the form of ecstatic utterances and actions; equal in value to Scripture • Encouraged excessive disciplinary practices • Opposed remarriage after death of spouse • Encouraged active seeking of martyrdom • Once a person was Baptized, and then sinned, they could not be forgiven Tertullian, North African Christianity

6. Response of Bishops • Some question as to whether or not to accept the New Prophecy • Admiration for spirituality • Respect and honor for martyrs • But New Prophecy seemed at odds with the importance of Apostolic Succession as guarantor of Truth • Excessive disciplinary practices, including no forgiveness of sins was not accepted by bishops • Condemned by Pope Eleutherius c. 180 Tertullian, North African Christianity

7. Tertullian’s Montanists View • Did not believe in spousal remarriage • Encouraged martyrdom • Did not completely accept authority of bishop • Tertullian held there were three classes of sins • Unforgivable sins: idolatry, apostasy, adultery (No readmittance to Church) • Grave but forgivable sins: murder • Daily sins: anger, evil speech • Broke with Catholic bishop of Carthage (Agrippinus) over forgiveness of sins; • Not even a bishop could forgive ‘unforgivable’ sins Tertullian, North African Christianity

8. Tertullian and Bishop of Rome • Tertullian claimed that Pope Eleutherius had approved of the Montanists • Claimed that Pope Victor was led astray by Praxeas to condemn Montanists (Against Praxeas) • Also chastised Pope Victor for forgiving sins of adultery: • I hear that there has even been an edict set forth, and a peremptory one too. The Pontifex Maximus -that is, the bishop of bishops -issues an edict: "I remit, to such as have discharged (the requirements of) repentance, the sins both of adultery and of fornication." On Modesty I • Pontifex Maximus: Tertullian is being sarcastic; this was the term for the pagan high priest in Rome Tertullian, North African Christianity

9. Controversies About Martyrs • Recall that did not have to die to be a martyr • Suffer for the sake of The Name • Martyrs in life and death were considered heroes of the Church with great personal spiritual power • Popularly believed that they could forgive sins, especially the sin of apostasy • Should the Church encourage martyrdom? • Official stance by most bishops was not to actively seek it, but if pushed, not to deny the faith Tertullian, North African Christianity

10. Decian Persecutions • First Empire-wide persecutions promulgated by Emperor Decius, 250 • Political instability within Empire • Increased threats from Persia and Northern barbarians • Required that everyone offer sacrifice for the Empire; • Required that everyone show their libellus (little book) or certificate to prove that they offered sacrifice • Required that Christians hand over their sacred books to be burned • Anyone who did not comply was condemned to death as a traitor Tertullian, North African Christianity

11. Response of Christians • Some fled cities • Some complied • Some bought libelli from others • Some refused to comply and were martyred • A few bishops did hand over the Scriptures to be burned Tertullian, North African Christianity

12. Response of Church • Once the persecutions had abated (i.e., when Decius was overthrown as Emperor) • What to do about those who had complied or avoided persecution • Validity of sacraments offered by bishops who had handed over Scriptures • Led to Novation and Donatists Controversies Tertullian, North African Christianity

13. Novation • Roman priest, opposed election of Pope Cornelius in 251 • Thought Cornelius too lax in re-admitting lapsed (lapsi) Christians back into Church • Set himself up as a rival Pope, drawing support from around Empire, especially from Montanists • Driving force opposing Novation: St. Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage Tertullian, North African Christianity

14. St. Cyprian • Teacher of Rhetoric before his conversion c. 248 • Almost immediately, he was elected bishop of Carthage • Tertullian was a major influence on him • During Decian persecutions, he fled Carthage, but remained in contact with the Church there • Martyred in persecutions of Valerian, 257 (as was Novation) • St. Cyprian will be a major influence on the greatest of Western theologians: Augustine Tertullian, North African Christianity

15. St. Cyprian and Re-Baptism • As noted above, Cyprian accepted lapsed into the Church with appropriate penance • However, he did not recognize the validity of Baptism by heretics or schismatics • This put him in conflict with Pope Stephen; the Roman Church seems to have always recognized Baptism by anyone as long as water and the Trinitarian formula were used • Cyprian thought the orthodoxy and validity of the minister was important in administering the sacrament • Note, Cyprian also opposed the forgiveness of sins by martyrs (libelli martyrum) for the same reason: the validity of the minister • Cyprian, and many others, wanted Christians Baptized by heretics to be re-Baptized • Pope St. Stephen prevailed Tertullian, North African Christianity

16. Key Issue at Stake • What is the relationship of the minister to the sacrament? • Does the validity of the sacrament depend on the personal virtue of the minister? • Official Catholic doctrine from the mid-Third Century (and from the beginning in Rome) is: • the validity of the sacrament is independent of the personal spiritual state of the minister • However, this issue continued to be hotly contested; leading to the Donatist movement in North Africa Tertullian, North African Christianity

17. Donatism • Started c. 313 in North Africa, named for a Christian Bishop in North Africa who protested the ordination of presbyters by a lapsed bishop • Followers of Montanist and Novatian joined with Donatists to form a schismatic Church, more numerous than the Catholic Church in North Africa. • Wanted the Church to be the ‘Church of the Pure’ especially the ministers • Looked to Tertullian and Cyprian as ‘fathers in faith’ Tertullian, North African Christianity

18. Preview: Augustine • Born near Carthage, 354 • Bishop of Hippo • Augustine rejected the notion of validity of minister need for validity of sacrament • No one is without sin • Efficacy of sacrament depends on intention of recipient • Augustine fought Donatists throughout his life • ‘fought’ literally, because they tried to assassinate him • Augustine’s theological understanding and teaching on this became standard in the Church Tertullian, North African Christianity

19. Back to Tertullian, On Baptism • Note the use of OT images • Discussion of Jesus’ Baptism by John • Discussion of Objections to Baptism • Jesus did not Baptize • Paul did not Baptize • What about holy men and women of OT • Passover best time for Baptism • Note Baptism as a type of ordination Tertullian, North African Christianity

20. To the Martyrs • Addressed to Christians in prison • Holy Spirit in prison with them • World more of a prison • Images of battle and combat • Examples from pagans Tertullian, North African Christianity

21. On Prayer • Titles for Jesus • Meditation on “Our Father” • Christ as our daily bread • Relation between debt and sin • How we should pray Tertullian, North African Christianity

22. Assignment • Read On Baptism, To the Martyrs, On Prayer • CCC 1212-1246, 1256 (Baptism) • Benedict XVI, General Audience 6 June 2007, St. Cyprian, http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/audiences/2007/documents/hf_ben-xvi_aud_20070606_en.html • Write short paper on Tertullian Tertullian, North African Christianity