Societies at Crossroads: Ottoman Empire & Russian Empire in Decline

1. Chapter 32 Societies at Crossroads

2. The Ottoman Empire in Decline • Ottoman empire reaches peak of military expansion in late 17th century • Defeated by Austrians, Russians, largely due to European advances in technology and strategy • Elite Janissary corps involved in palace intrigue • Semi-independent local warlords use mercenaries, slave armies to support Sultan in return for imperial favor • Massive corruption, misuse of tax revenues

3. Territorial Losses • Russia takes territories in Caucasus, central Asia • Nationalist uprisings drive Ottomans out of Balkans • Napoleon’s unsuccessful attack on Egypt spurs local revolt against Ottomans under Muhammad Ali (r. 1805-1848) • Nominally subordinate to Sultan, but threatened capture of Istanbul • British support Ottomans only to avoid possible Russian expansion

4. Territorial losses of the Ottoman empire, 1800-1914

5. Ottoman Economy • Imports of cheap manufactured goods place stress on local artisans, urban riots result • Export-dependent Ottoman economy increasingly relies on foreign loans • By 1882 Ottomans unable to pay even interest on loans, forced to accept foreign administration of debts • Capitulations: agreements that exempted Europeans from Ottoman law • Extraterritoriality gives tax-free status to foreign banks, businesses

6. Early Reforms • Attempts to reform taxation, increase agricultural output, and reduce corruption • Sultan Selim III (r. 1789-1807) remodeled army on European lines • Janissaries revolt, kill new troops, imprison Sultan • Sultan Mahmud II (r. 1808-1839) attempts same, has Janissaries massacred • Also reforms schools, taxation, builds telegraph, postal service

7. Tanzimat (“Reorganization”) Era, 1839-1876 Pace of reform accellerated Drafted new law codes Undermined power of traditional religious elite Fierce opposition from religious conservatives, bureacracy Also opposition from radical Young Ottomans, who wanted constitutional government

8. The Young Turk Era • 1876 radical dissident elements stage a coup, install Abdül Hamid II as Sultan (r. 1876-1909) • Constitution, representative government adopted, but suspended within the year, Many liberals exiled, executed • Principal organization; Ottoman Society for Union and Progress: The Young Turk Party • Founded by Ottomans in exile in Paris • Called for rapid, secular reforms • Forced Abdül Hamid II to restore parliament, then dethroned him in favor of Mehmed V Rashid (r. 1909-1918)

9. Young Turk Rule • Attempted to establish Turkish hegemony over far-flung empire • Turkish made official language, despite large numbers of Arabic and Slavic language speakers • Yet could not contain forces of decline

10. The Russian Empire in Decline • Russia a massive, multi-cultural empire • Only approximately half speak Russian, observe Russian Orthodox Christianity • Romanov Tsars rule autocratic empire • Powerful class of nobles exempt from taxation, military duty • Exploitative serfdom

11. The Russian empire, 1801-1914

12. The Crimean War, 1853-1856 Russian expansion into Caucasus in larger attempt to establish control over weakening Ottoman empire Threatens to upset balance of power, Europeans become involved Russia driven back from Crimea in humiliating defeat Demonstration of Russian weakness in the face of western technology, strategy

13. Reform: Emancipation of the Serfs • Serfdom source of rural instability and peasant revolt • Tsar Alexander II emancipates serfs in 1861, without alleviating poverty, land hunger • Forced to pay for lands they had farmed for generations • Limited attempts to reform administration, small-scale representative government • Network of elected district assemblies called zemstvos

14. Industrialization in Russia • Count Sergei Witte, minister of finance 1892-1903 • Massive railroad construction • Trans-Siberian railroad • But massive industrial discontent • Peasants uprooted from rural lifestyle to work for low wages, long hours

15. Repression • Intelligentsia class spreads radical ideas for social change • Socialists, anarchists • Terror tactics, assassinations • Attempt to connect with the mistrustful peasantry in 1870s, denounced and sent into Siberian exile • Tsarist authorities turn to censorship, secret police • Nationalist sentiment seething in Baltics, Poland, Ukraine, Georgia, central Asia

16. Radicalization • 1881 radical People’s Will movement assassinates Tsar Alexander II • Prompted widespread pogrom attacks on Jews • Increased repression • Nicholas II (r. 1894-1917) enters into war with Japan (1904-1905) • Humiliating defeat exposes government weaknesses • Social discontent boils over in Revolution of 1905 • Strikes force government to make concessions

17. Chinese restrictions on British trade • Since 1759, European commercial presence limited to port of Guangzhou • Foreign merchants forced to deal solely with licensed Chinese firms called cohongs, currency of trade: silver bullion • British East India Company heavily involved in opium trade • Opium grown in India, sold in China for silver, silver used to buy other Chinese products

18. The Opium Trade Illegal, but poor enforcement Increasing trade and social ills evident by late 1830s Chinese move to enforce ban British agents engage in military retaliation: the Opium War (1839-1842) British naval forces easily defeats Chinese

19. Opium Factory

20. Unequal Treaties China forced into a series of disadvantageous treaties Hong Kong ceded to British in Treaty of Nanjing (1842), ports opened to British traders Extraterritorial status to British subject Later, other countries conclude similar treaties

21. East Asia in the nineteenth century

22. The Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864) Large-scale rebellions in later nineteenth century reflect poverty, discontent of Chinese peasantry Population rises 50% between 1800-1900, but land under cultivation remains static Nian Rebellion (1851-1868), Muslim Rebellion (1855-1873), Tungan Rebellion (1862-1878) Taiping Rebellion led by Hong Xiuquan, schoolteacher, called for destruction of Qing dynasty

23. Taiping Platform • Abolition of private property • Creation of communal wealth • Prohibition of footbinding, concubinage • Free public education, simplification of written Chinese, mass literacy • Prohibition of sexual relations among followers (including married couples) • Yet leaders maintained harems

24. Taiping Defeat • Nanjing captured in 1858, made into capital • Attack on Beijing with force of 1 million, but turned back • Imperial army unable to contain Taipings, so regional armies created with Manchu soldiers and outfitted with European weaponry • Hong commits suicide in 1864, Nanjing recaptured • 100,000 Taipings massacred

25. The Self-Strengthening Movement (1860-1895) • High point in 1860s-1870s • Slogan “Chinese learning at the base, Western learning for use” • Blend of Chinese cultural traditions with European industrial technology • Shipyards, railroads, academies • Change to Chinese economy and society superficial • Empress Dowager Cixi (1835-1908) diverted funds for her own aesthetic purposes

26. Spheres of Influence • Qing dynasty loses influence in south-east Asia, losing tributary states to Europeans and Japanese • Vietnam: France, 1886 • Burma: Great Britain, 1885 • Korea, Taiwan, Liaodong Peninsula: Japan, 1895 • China itself divided into spheres of influence, 1895

27. Hundred Days Reforms (1898) Kang Youwei (1858-1927) and Liang Qichao (1873-1929) Interpreted Confucianism to allow for radical changes to system Pro-industrialization Emperor Guangxu attempts to implement reforms Empress Dowager Cixi nullifies reforms, imprisons emperor

28. The Boxer Rebellion Cixi supports Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists (“Boxers”), anti-foreign militia units 1899 fight to rid China of “foreign devils” Misled to believe European weapons would not harm them, 140,000 Boxers besiege European embassies in 1900 Crushed by coalition of European forces China forced to accept stationing of foreign troops

29. Boxers

30. Death of the Dowager Empress Emperor dies a mysterious, sudden death Cixi dies one day later, November 1908 2-year old Puyi placed on the throne Revolution in 1911 Puyi abdicates, 1912

31. Transformation of Japan • Japanese society in turmoil in early 19th century • Poor agricultural output, famines, high taxes • Daimyo, samurai classes decline, peasants starve • Tokugawa government attempts reforms, 1841-1843 • Cancelled daimyo, samurai debts • Abolished merchant guilds • Compelled peasants to return to cultivating rice • Reforms ineffective

32. Foreign Pressure Europeans, Americans attempting to establish relations U.S. in particular look for Pacific ports for whalers, merchants Japan only allowed Dutch presence in Nagasaki 1853 Matthew Perry sails gunship up to Edo (Tokyo), forces Japanese to open port Sparks conservative Japanese reaction against Shogun, rally around Emperor in Kyoto

33. The Meiji Restoration (1868) Brief civil war between imperial and Tokugawa forces 1868 Emperor Mutusuhito (Meiji, 1852-1912) takes power Goals of prosperity and strength: “rich country, strong army” Resolved to learn western technology

34. Meiji Reforms • Travelers Fukuzawa Yukichi (1835-1901) and Ito Hirobumi (1841-1909) travel to U.S., Europe • Argue for adoption of western legal proceedings, technology • Meiji government removes privileges for daimyo, samurai • Conscript army replaces samurai mercenaries • Samurai rebellion crushed by national army • Tax reform: payment in cash, not kind

35. Constitutional Government 1889 constitution promulgated Conservative: only 5 % of male population allowed to vote in 1890 election Economic reforms to promote rapid industrialization Dramatic improvement in literacy rates Government holdings sold to private investors: zaibatsu, financial cliques develop