Global threats

1. Global threats • Globally there are a number of trends which threaten ecosystems and biodiversity

2. Local threats Localised deforestation; clearance for farming and urbanisation Tourism development; trampling, erosion; urbanisation and associated pollution; increased risk of wildfires Overfishing and harmful forms of fishing e.g. dynamite and cyanide • In small scale areas, local threats can be numerous and represent a severe threat to ecosystems and biodiversity. Siltation from runoff; increased risk of alien invasive species Runoff from farms and urban areas; eutrophication and heavy metals in rivers, lakes and seas Mining, ranching and overgrazing, road building leading to ecosystem fragmentation

3. Ecosystem destruction • Pristine ecosystems are rare today • Highly developed countries tend to have few of them, although they may use their wealth to protect, conserve and restore ecosystems • Wealth, and leisure time, tend to mean people have positive attitudes to the environment • In NICs and RICs (see graph) threats to ecosystems tend to be severe, as ecosystems are used as resources and there is limited money for conservation • In less developed countries, yet to industrialise, ecosystem may not be exploited yet – but for how long?

4. Managing Biodiversity

5. The key players in management? Artists and poets Brainstorm ALL the players you think are involved Transnational and private enterprise Indigenous people Local and regional governments Scientists and researchers Players in ecosystem management International organisations NGOs stakeholders Special interest groups Local farmers National governments Individuals

6. Global Players • There are 150 wildlife treaties in place • Such things require a number of nations to sign before becoming law • Most involve funding conservation work, designating protected areas, or regulating endangered species • The 5 most important treaties in place today are • RAMSAR Convention- wetland conservation signed 1971- adopted by 147 countries • World Heritage Convention- to designate and protect outstanding cultural and natural sites- signed 1972, by over 180 countries • The Convention on International trade in Endangered Species- signed in 1973, adopted by 166 countries • The convention on the conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals was signed in 1979 and by 2005 adopted by 90 countries to prevent shooting of birds in passage • The UN Convention on the Law of the sea- ratified by 148 countries

7. Other global players • Transnational corporation's are involved, have say in which goods/ services are mostly exploited- increasingly they are moving to greener strategies for long term benefit and to improve public image • They also drive innovation and technology, sometimes for the common good, but sometimes to the detriment of the ecosystem involved • Other international institutions which are involved- UN agencies, World Bank, World Trade Organisation and the International Tropical Timber Organisation • Non government Organisations- such as Greenpeace and WWF provide vital biodiversity conservation • WWF works in over 100 countries- it’s mission is to stop the degradation of the planets natural environment and build an environment where people live in harmony with nature • Others are smaller such as FAN (A small NGO working in Eastern Bolivia to conserve biodiversity by using natural resources in a sustainable way).

8. National Players • Government- regulate and facilitate • Regulation- establish and enforce laws to conserve genetic biodiversity, protect various areas and species and regulate damaging activities such as using polluting agro chemicals or releasing invasive species • They also manage natural resources providing clean air water or open space • They fund preservation conservation and development, often through taxes and subsidies • Positive incentives to conserve are increasingly used, e.g. paying farmers to be stewards of the landscape and to farm in environmentally friendly ways

9. Local players • Indigenous people are often dependant on biodiversity for basic survival • For many local biodiversity has spiritual significance • Locals have good knowledge of local plants and their uses, e.g. traditional medicine • Local fishers/ farmers can conflict with conservationists because they live a subsistence lifestyle relying on the ecosystem for survival • Ecosystem management issues are increasingly in previously remote areas like the Amazon and Antarctica- as more people visit pressures arise • Some individuals can join together to form special interest groups- they can degrade delicate areas • Conflict can arise from scientists hunting for new drugs, species with indigenous people who just want to continue their existence

10. Individual players • Most diverse group of all • All having individual morals, beliefs and needs on each ecosystem • eg Sting, Al Gore, David Attenborough - certain individual campaigners have the ability to reach a global audience and push for change. • In OECD countries ethical consumerism is increasing people buying dolphin friendly tuna. • Spiritual and recreational demands for new tourist destinations means areas like the Galapagos and Arctic are experiencing mass tourism.

11. What to conserve? • There is not, and never will be, a limitless pot of money for conservation. • Decisions have to be taken about what should be conserved , but these decisions are difficult to make

12. Sustainable Yield= key part of sustainable ecosystem management. It represents the safe level of harvest that can be hunted/ caught/ utilised without harming the individual ecosystem. How do they measure the sustainable level? • Maximum sustainable yield- greatest harvest that can be taken indefinitely while leaving the ecosystem intact. Harvesting wild plants, animals or fish is part of the subsistence lifestyle of indigenous people and is usually sustainable. • Over harvesting or overexploitation are usually the result of commercial rather than subsistence activity. When activities such as shooting elephants for ivory or harvesting shellfish and logging in natural forests- the targets and their habitats are under threat • Optimum sustainable yield- best compromise achievable in the light of all the economic and social considerations. This will not destroy the aesthetic or recreational value of the ecosystem and will therefore allow multiple use for the maximum benefit to the community. • In order to manage fish/ wildlife mathematical models have been developed to estimate the CARRYING CAPACITY (CC). This is maximum human population that can exist in equilibrium with the available resources (food, nutrients, etc). • The major problem is that the CC varies seasonally and over time can be reduced by Climate Change

13. Intense competition for food Carrying capacity Mortality high, population reproduction low cc Population begins to be threatened by over harvesting No cover against predators MSY in practice Population declines for natural reasons, more rapidly if over harvesting occurs CC/2 Maximum sustained yield halfway between 0 and the CC OSY lower than MSY, so ecosystem still has high aesthetic value 0 time Carefully controlled harvesting allows population growth

14. Managing biodiversity • Given that 7.2 billion humans cannot stop ‘using’ ecosystems, is there are safe way to use them? • A certain level of use (yield) is sustainable – be it logging, fishing, hunting etc. • This level is the Maximum Sustainable Yield for a species / ecosystem – the level at which utilisation by humans does not lead to long term decline in species numbers • In reality, taking the MSY leaves no room for error (or climate change, disease etc) • The Optimum Yield is lower, and safer in terms of long term sustainability.

15. Sustainable Yields in the Southern Ocean • Managed since 1961 since the Antarctic treaty came into force. Before this they were exhausted and overfished. Several fin fish became extinct. A model was used to calculate the fishing yield. • Whaling is banned • No culling of fur or elephant seals • Limits placed on krill taking • Protection of penguins and other Antarctic sea birds, as they being in food web have an impact on sea stocks • Environmental protection in place- no military action or waste dumping, so air pollution kept to minimum • Few visitors, mainly scientists and some seasonal tourists, but little noise pollution

16. Southern ocean SYM – A 3 prong approach! * Single species approach sets limits for harvesting individual species that are indefinitely sustainable. * Ecosystem approach involves considering harvested species both on their own and in relation to dependant species and whole environment. * Precautionary principle aims to model consequences of any planned expansion of catches before it is permitted.

17. Case study: CAMPFIRE approach – Why did it collapse? Under British colonial rule large sections of indigenous population in Zimbabwe were forced to live in communal areas - tribal trust lands. Communal Areas Management Programme for indigenous resources (CAMPFIRE) project was set up in the late 1980’s. It was aimed at long-term development, management and sustainable use of natural resources in each communal area.

18. Case study: CAMPFIRE approach The responsibility was placed with local people, whilst allowing them to benefit directly from the exploitation of resources. ‘Bottom Up’ Approach – varies and advice is given by the Zimbabwe Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management.

19. Case study: CAMPFIRE approach Many of the schemes made money from big-game hunting at sustainable yield levels…this money was then fed back into the community. The economic collapse of Zimbabwe undermined the whole scheme. Loss of staff, lack of funding, poaching, hunger saw it collapse.

20. Demonstrate: Questions… Describe what sustainable yield means (5) Explain how the Southern Oceans and CAMPIRE are examples of sustainable management. (10)

21. Strategies and policies Tolerant forest management Scientific Reserve Community wildlife management Economic development integrated into conservation Exploitation with token protection Wildlife Reserves and parks Extractive reserves total protection total exploitation conservation

22. What sort of protection? In the 1960’s total protection was the only method of conservation! In the 1980’s biosphere reserves were established with buffer zones…for use by local people 21ST Century conservation now means species protection, scientific reserves, as well as incorporating economic development with biodiversity. What factors is successful conservation influenced by?

23. Demonstrate:What are the problems with the ‘total protection strategy’? In LEDCs conflict between conservation and cutting people off from biodiversity Totally protected reserves can be focussed on for scientific purposes and fail to see that conservation is influence by social, economic, etc Many schemes were based on political and economic boundaries where as ecosystems are defined by natural borders!! Coordination from outside agencies which do not always know about needs of local people

24. Biosphere reserves • One of the most common form of conservation management is the UNESCO Biosphere reserve model • Biosphere reserves use the principle of zoning to conserve core ecological areas, whilst allowing some economic development – such as eco-tourism or managed hunting or logging • Educating local people to conserve resources for future generations is important • Biosphere reserves usually have scientific research and monitoring activities too • Famous locations such as the Galapagos and Komodo NP use elements of the biosphere reserve model

25. Activate:What are biosphere reserves? Reserves are a popular strategy. Many are in favour of ‘corridor’ like reserves running north-south. Global warming drives species from the poles will still be protected! Many people feel that conservation should target ‘hotspots’. WWF favours a broad approach to save larger areas and more species. Some others feel we should concentrate in LEDCs where it would cost less and get better value for money.

26. Hotspots

27. 4 CATEGORIES OF HOTSPOT • Continental Hotspots • Large Island Hotspots • Small Island Hotspots • Marine Hotspots ATLANTIC FOREST AUSTRALIA MADAGASCAR CORAL REEF

28. Hotspots The top 25 land-based hotspots are divided into 3 categories • Continental hotspots (richest in terms of biodiversity) 2. Large island (or continental island) hotspots (contain diverse & distinctive species inc relict fauna extinct elsewhere) • Small island hotspots (low in species no’s but high in proportion of endemics so at great risk of being wiped out)

29. ADVANTAGES OF HOTSPOTS Has ensured that the ‘best bits’- areas with the highest levels of biodiversity, substantial levels of endemism (unique/rare species) are conserved and protected. Areas under threat are commonly in the tropics and in developing countries where conservation costs are much lower (cheap labour) – idea of value for money. Hotspots now covers marine area under threats in addition to terrestrial ecosystems

30. DISADVANTAGES OF HOTSPOTS Even with the additions of marine hotspots under 2% of the earth and 0.017% of oceans are protected by this approach The distribution of areas protected is very uneven. Most hotspots lie in the tropics e.g. rainforests. Many ecosystems such as Tundra, Taiga and Temperate Forest are not included. Huge areas of the world are not covered including many areas under great threat e.g. Arctic Ocean, or many outstanding smaller regions such as Galapagos . These are not protected because they do not meet all three criteria to be a hot spot. Polar bears subsequently face extinction. Hotspots tend to follows protectionist approach. This entails removing people and their activities from areas under threat. This has occurred in tropical countries where indigenous people have been forced off their land in favour of creating big reserves.

31. Restoring degraded areas • The ultimate conservation challenge • i.e. Recreating wetlands • Or linking fragmented reserve areas to make larger reserves easier to manage and more biodiverse • These schemes rely on how degraded land is the more degraded and polluted the harder it is • An example of this is the Great Fens recreation project in East Anglia, UK.

32. Conservation • Other approaches to conservation, ex situ conservation, e.g. captive breeding of endangered animals in zoos. • Zoos also contain biodiversity banks such as seed banks for plants • Several species have been saved in this way such as Scimitar horned Oryx, bred at Marwell Zoo and re released into Arabia • Giant pandas are also being bred in captivity to increase numbers • Some people do not like zoos feeling sorry for captive animals, but they play a vital role in education of people and allowing people to see animals they otherwise may not see

33. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species • IUCN Red List of Threatened Species is considered the most comprehensive record of the conservation status of plants and animals. • Essentially precise criteria is utilised by different countries and organisations to evaluate the extinction risk of thousands of species and subspecies. • These criteria are relevant to all species and all regions of the world. • Records are continually being updated. • The IUCN aim to convey the urgency of conservation issues to the public and policy makers, as well as help the international community try and reduce species extinction.

34. LIVING PLANET INDEX (LPI) • The Living Planet Index (LPI) is an indicator of the state of global biological diversity, based on trends in vertebrate species- fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds mammals- from all around the world. • By tracking wild species, the Living Planet Index is also monitoring the health of ecosystems. • The information can be used to define the impact humans are having on the planet and for guiding actions to address biodiversity loss.

35. ECO-REGIONS • The WWF developed a system of eco-regions. • They are deemed the most biologically distinct terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems on the planet and subsequently are to be protected and conserved to ensure species, habitats and ecological processes continue. • The eco-regions identified are to be representative of all ecosystems of that type. • http://worldwildlife.org/biomes

36. PAST PAPER QUESTION: • Explain the distribution of the world’s terrestrial and marine hotspots in Figure 3. (10) • Evaluate the relative advantages and disadvantages of the ‘hotspot’ approach to biodiversity management (compared with other strategies) (15)

37. GOOD EXAM STRUCTURE: • Explain the distribution of the world’s terrestrial and marine hotspots in Figure 3.

38. GOOD EXAM STRUCTURE: b) Evaluate the relative advantages and disadvantages of the ‘hotspot’ approach to biodiversity management (compared with other strategies) (15)

39. Biodiversity- the future? To look at possible futures for the biodiversity of our planet

40. Current problems • Only 12% of Earth is said to warrant protection. Only 1% of marine areas • Protected areas are fragmented and unevenly distributed • Funds are short, especially in LDC countries • Although it is said to be protected does not mean area will be successfully conserved • Areas not protected are still very threatened by pollution, climate change invasive species and unsustainable development

41. Biodiversity futures • 2010 was the UN International Year of Biodiversity • This alone shows how important biodiversity is to the planet’s future. • UNEPs GEO-4 Project (2007) identifies 4 possible futures for biodiversity and ecosystems (below) • There are some difficult choices to be made!

42. Biodiversity and the Millennium Development Goals • The millennium development goals adopted by world leaders in September 2000 at the millennium UN summit • The 8 MDGs break down into 21 quantifiable targets that are measured by 60 indicators. Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women Goal 4: Reduce child mortality Goal 5: Improve maternal health Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability Goal 8: Develop a Global Partnership for Development

43. Obviously goal 7 deals explicitly with biodiversity, but biodiversity is interlinked with many other goals • Eradicating hunger (goal 1) depends much on sustainable agricultural production , which relies on maintaining soils • The capacity of fisheries to supply hundreds of people with bulk of protein depends on maintaining coral and mangroves • Improving health and sanitation (goals 4,5 and 6)require healthy freshwater ecosystems to provide adequate clean water and medicinal resources • This contributes to gender equality (MDG 3) as women are mainly responsible for water collection

44. Link between poverty and biodiversity • Poverty and biodiversity are inextricably linked • Poor ~(esp rural) rely on biodiversity for food, fuel, shelter, medicine and livelihood • Biodiversity also provides the critical ecosystems on which development depends, including air and water purification • Biodiversity exacerbates poverty and likewise poverty is a major threat to biodiversity

45. Scenarios • The Millennium Ecosystems Assessment (MEA), tried to explore plausible futures for ecosystems and human well being by 2050 They explored • New development pathways- one where world increasingly globalises, the other where it becomes increasingly regional • 2 different approaches to ecosystem management- one in which actions are reactive and most problems are addressed only after they are obvious, the other in which ecosystem management is proactive and policies seek to manage ecosystem services for the future

46. The MEAs 4 scenarios

47. And 130-33 of oxford • What are the pros and cons of each of the 4 scenarios? • Which overall do you think offers the best scenario? Why?

48. WWF’s living Planet Index Report • Defines two possible pathways (actions and ways), on the basis of these WWF anticipates 4 possible scenarios • Business as usual- increased ecological footprint and no reduction in the overshoot (ecological deficit) or of the degree to which consumption exceeds biological capacities • Slow shift- gradual eco footprint reduction through developing sustainable policies so that biological capacities recover by 2100 • Rapid reduction- radical policies to control ecological footprint, overshoot eliminated by 2040 • Shrink and share- breaking down the world into regions in order to share responsibilities of controlling overshoot by global cooperation

49. The convention on Biodiversity • Signed by 150 world leaders at Rio Earth Summit in 1992 • Signed to achieve reduction in current loss rate of biodiversity at all scales • Convention recognises people’s role in protection and conservation that people need to have security before protecting the environment around them • The positive trend from this • Protected areas have doubled • Water quality has been improved

50. What are the prospects of achieving the target? • Temperate degradation is predicted to reduce, but tropical will increase • Time lags are too big changes cannot make a difference over night it takes years, so sooner started sooner results seen • Agricultural efficiency needs to improve rapidly to reduce impact on biodiversity • Trade agreements should involve looking at how biodiversity is affected • Strategies to reduce poverty need to include conservation and sustainable biodiversity use