The Specification

2. The Specification The social distribution of crime and deviance by age, ethnicity, gender, locality and social class, including recent patterns and trends in crime.

3. Study of statistics and other evidence on the social distribution of crime by age, ethnicity, gender, locality and social class, including recent patterns and trends. Issues related to and explanations of the social distribution of crime and deviance by age: juvenile delinquency and youth crime. Issues related to and explanations of the social distribution of crime and deviance and ethnicity: explanations from different theories, racism in the criminal justice system. Issues related to and explanations of the social distribution of crime and deviance and gender: explanations of the rates of male and female crime, the gendering of crime, chivalry thesis, the gender deal. Issues related to and explanations of the social distribution of crime and deviance and locality: rural and urban crime. Issues related to and explanations of the social distribution of crime and deviance and social class: explanations from different theories; white collar crime; occupational crime.

4. Activity 1:Build your own question Examine sociological explanations of … Assess the usefulness of … Assess the view … Examine some of the issues related to …

5. Activity 2: Whiteboards For age, social class and location. Brainstorm the trends and possible explanations why?

6. Activity: A3 revision page. Fold into 6 squares. Create definitive revision guides for: • Age • Social Class • Location

7. Age and Crime – Juvenile delinquents • Learning Objectives • To explain the meaning of juvenile delinquents • To explore factors that contribute to delinquent behaviour Starter Activity Key question What is Delinquency?

8. How did you do? Delinquency refers to…. Under-age sexual activity for girls Staying out late, swearing, outrageous dress, tattoos and body piercing It may include crime, but also covers deviant behaviour Undesirable, Anti-social behaviour of young people

9. It was never like that in my day, young people knew how to behave…. Not true, we teddy boys displayed delinquent behaviour So did us punks!

10. How do these factors link to • delinquency? • Family problems, parents • divorce • Failure at school • Use of alcohol and drugs

11. Task • Create a poster explaining how peer groups and subcultures can encourage delinquent behaviour • Success Criteria • Include • Albert Cohen's theory of status frustration • David Matza two sets of values

12. Plenary What can be done about delinquent behaviour? Now check your suggestions against those highlighted on page 277

13. Key facts • Young, working class are more likely to commit criminal acts than older, middle class. • A typical prisoner in the U.K will be under 30 and working class. • Offending rises steeply from 10-18 then declines sharply after 24. Functionalism – Age and class Functionalists like Merton say young working class people commit crime because they strive for success but lack the necessary educational skills and qualifications. They want the goal of success but must achieve it illegitimately. (Innovation) Subcultural theory – Age and class Young working class people join gangs because they are frustrated at their status in mainstream society. They solve this by rejecting mainstream norms and values, joining a gang and achieving a status through non-utilitarian crimes. Age – class and crime Right realism – class Right realists like Charles Murray believe that single parent families fail to socialise their children effectively due to a lack of male role models, they also grow up to be welfare dependant. Labelling theory – age and class Young working class people especially boys are more likely to be stopped and searched and labelled as criminals by the police and courts. Left realism – Age and class Most crime is committed by working class people against working class people. Perhaps because relative deprivation, individualism and that fact we live in a bulimic society (the idea that we are exposed to consumer products but cannot consume them).

14. Marxism The working class are no more criminals than anyone else, however the law protects the bourgeoisie so the working class become easier to criminalise. The working class get harsher punishments compared with those who commit white collar crimes. Blue collar crime Crimes committed by manual factory workers (working class), these are street crimes like theft which are in public view. White collar crime Crimes committed by office workers (middle/upper class) like fraud, these are often hidden from public view. White collar crime Very difficult to prosecute due to problems of who is responsible and who is a victim. Much white collar crime is not dealt with criminally but administratively by external agencies like the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) and the Trading Standards Agency. Only serious cases go to court. Social class and crime Case study – Guinness affair False claims of success led to high share prices and company directors making millions. Gerald Ronsonreceived a one -year sentence in Ford (open prison) and was released on parole after serving about 6 months. He is still a successful businessman and one of Britain's 100 richest people.

15. Key ideas • There is a link between where offenders live and crimes committed in that area. • Environmental criminology is concerned with mapping the spatial distribution of offenders and offences. Shaw and McKay Did a study of delinquency in Chicago (1927-33). They divided the city of into five zones, drawn at two-mile intervals, radiating outwards in concentric circles from the CBD (Central Business District). They found the delinquency living rates declined from zone 1 to 5. They argue that zone 1 has the highest rate of delinquents because it is characterised by a high population turnover and mixture of different cultures. They called this the zone of transition Location – Environmental Criminology The least delinquents live in Zone 5 – 1.8 % mainly commuter zone with expensive houses. They concluded that the zone of transition had social disorganisation (low social cohesion and little sense of community) making it a breading ground for deviants. The most delinquents live in Zone 1 – 9.8% - deteriorating housing and factories, high population turnover

16. Explanations Area offending rates in Britain Studies in Britain contradict Shaw and Mckay and the idea of determining crime by location. Some studies show higher numbers of offenders living in council housing estates rather than city centres (Morris 1957). One study of two council estates separated by a road showed one had 300% more offenders living there than the other (Bottoms, Mawby and Xanthos 1989) . Opportunity theory Crimes will be committed in locations where targets are attractive to criminals meaning it has a high monetary value and can easily be transported and sold. Coupled with accessibility meaning if physical access is easy and chances of being observed are low. Location – Environmental Criminology Routine activities theory Argues that crimes are likely to happen in particular places because of three things: There are likely offenders in the area, attractive targets and an absence of capable guardians like property owners. Cognitive mapping (1984) Patricia and Paul Brantingham argue that we have cognitive maps inside out heads which outline our perception of the geography of our local area. These maps contain places we are familiar with such as home, school or work, places of entertainment etc. They say most offenders commit crimes in areas they are familiar with; because of an offender’s awareness of space, and opportunities for crime.

17. Environmental Theory

18. Key points • Offenders tend to be concentrated in particular areas – certain towns/cities and certain places in those towns/cities. The spatial distribution of offenders is not random • Certain crimes also tend to committed in certain areas The spatial distribution of offences is not random

19. Environmental Theory • Also called urban criminology • Concerned with the relationship between crime and where people live, work and spend their leisure time.

20. The Chicago School • Group of sociologists who argued that the growth of cities produced distinctive neighbourhoods (1920’s) • Shaw and McKay (1942) applies this perspective to the study of delinquency. • They divided the city of Chicago into 5 zones and mapped the residences of male delinquents.

22. Shaw and McKay found similar patterns in Chicago from 1900 to 1906 and from 1917 to 1923. • Zone 1 has the highest rate of delinquents – as an area it is characterised by a high population turnover and cultural heterogeneity (a mixture of different cultures)

23. This cultural heterogeneity is because newcomers that come to cities usually start in zone 1 (CBD) – Cheapest rents. • These people often come from a variety of cultural backgrounds. Chicago:Black and White rural migrants from southern US states; Irish; Italian; Greek and Polish

24. Zone 1 • Has a shifting population. This central urban area is a ‘zone of transition’ • This means that new people arrive, make money and move out to higher income areas. • This makes room for fresh blood in zone 1 – new migrants move in. High population turnover.

25. Social Disorganisation • High rate of population turnover plus cultural heterogeneity equals social disorganisation. • Less sense of community or social cohesion – people do not feel attached to their community (Hirschi, bonds of attachment). • Social controls such as gossip, public disapproval and public surveillance are not enough to prevent criminal behaviour developing, so grows and then becomes the norm for newer generations (and the problem develops). This theory later developed into what Shaw and McKay called ‘cultural transmission’.

26. Evaluation points • These methods were applied to a number of US cities and found similar results. • Lander (1962) found similar results in Baltimore – high proportion of offenders in a shifting population area, but there were also stable communities in zone 1 – and these were characterised as having less crime. - Both low income areas, so population stability is a clear factor.

27. Some of Shaw and McKay’s theories echo Merton (Strain Theory) • They suggest (like Merton) that crime in low-income areas is often employed to acquire ‘the economic and social values generally idealised in our culture.’ • They innovate and turn to crime rather than achieve success by conventional (normal) means.

28. What is crime like in London? • http://maps.met.police.uk/ • http://maps.police.uk/view/?q=n43ad&url=

29. Sutherland (1974)Differential association The more time you spend with people who are not law-abiding the more likely you are to turn to crime yourself. As there is more crime in inner-city, there is more chance of criminals influencing others.

30. British studies – Failed to find such clear relationships, just pockets of high crime areas. 1. Morris (1957) Croydon. 2. Baldwin and Bottoms (1976) Sheffield. 3. Gill (1977) Liverpool

31. Morris (1957) Croydon Highest crime rate was on certain council estates, but these areas were tight knit and not disorganised. High-crime areas caused by councils housing policies - ‘problem families’ together (created high crime areas)

32. ‘Tipping’ Baldwin and Bottoms (1976) • An area is seen as ‘going downhill’ • Could be due to council policies or ‘problem families’ moving in – could also be due to a real or imagined increase in anti-social behaviour. • Law abiding residents move out soon as they can, and friends or relatives of problem families move in. • If the antisocial families outweigh the respectable families, then tipping speeds up. • Many see the solution as being the council placing families or problem people more responsibly – and not just grouping them.

33. Baldwin & Bottoms (1976) • Sheffield Council created sink estates. • Problem families were housed in certain areas – other types of family refused to take houses there. • Labelling and self-fulfilling prophecy take place. • Similar to Broken Windows Theory.

34. Park Hill Estate - Tipping • http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/puffbox/hyperpuff/audiovideo/england/west_yorkshire/8024796.stm • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E9-cfAdGiFA • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GQXkbBzkT28

35. How do neighbourhoods ‘tip’? ‘Broken Windows’– Wilson and Kelling (2003) • Informal social controls are essential for crime prevention (neighbourhood watch etc) • These controls break down when buildings are left in a state of disrepair, and when disorderly behaviour is unchallenged. • Graffiti, vandalism and anti-social behaviour increases so the neighbourhood tips. • Social controls break down, law-abiding citizens become scared to go out. Disorder becomes widespread

36. Gill (1977) Liverpool • Luke St in Liverpool became a notorious road for trouble. • People who lived there found they were discriminated against in jobs, shops and HP agreements. • A Luke Street address was a negative label.

37. Lash & Urry (1994) • Have identified ‘Wild Spaces’. • Some towns have no-go areas where crime is such a problem that even the police do not go. • Normal rules are suspended in these areas and Durkheim’s state of anomie has been reached.

38. Explanations for the spatial distribution of offences Opportunity theory • Concerned with the opportunities for crime. Target Attractiveness: • Property can be attractive if it is of high value and easy to transport and sell (eg, laptop)

39. Accessibility: A target is accessible if it can be seen, if access is easy and the chances of being seen are low. However, in terms of target attractiveness, the most valuable cars and their contents will be found in a wealthy area – despite this, low-income, multi- ethnic areas still have higher rates of vehicle related crime Opportunity theory cannot explain the spatial distribution of crime alone.

40. Routine activities theory (Cohen & Felson 1979) 1) A suitable target is available & attractive (object or person) 2) There is the lack of a suitable guardian to prevent the crime from happening (e.g., Police, homeowner) 3) A likely and motivated offender is present.

41. RAT suggests that criminals base their activities on their routines – where they frequent, the places they live, the areas they know – they use their knowledge to weigh up whether the crime will be successful or not

42. RAT – what does it stand for? Routine Activities Theory Cohen and Felson (1979) Explains why crimes happen in the places they do… • Target Attractiveness • Lack of a suitable guardian t stop the crime happening • A likely and motivated offender is present

43. Explaining Spatial Distribution of offenders and offences Key points: • Most offences occur within a short distance of the offenders home!

44. Study in Sheff found that, on average, offenders travelled only 1.93 miles from their home to commit a crime (Wiles and Costello (2000) I don’t really like travelling that far!

45. Cognitive Maps – Brantingham and Brantingham (1984) • Argued that we have cognitive maps inside our head – maps of the geography of our local area. • Contain places we are familiar with, and the routes to these places – work, homes, school, shops etc.

46. The Brantinghams suggest that most offenders will commit crimes in areas they are familiar with. • They believe there is a relationship between awareness of space, opportunities for crime and areas where offences occur.

47. Wiles and Costello (2000) • Study in Sheff – they categorised neighbourhoods into high, medium and low offence rates and offender rates. • High offender and high offence rates were found in the same area. • There were no cases of high offender rates and low offence rates. (Supports RAT)

48. Criticisms of Environmental Theory • Accepts official statistics as the truth. • Fails to explain why crime happens in the first place? • Mixed evidence from UK. • Left realist & right realists have different solutions for the problem of Urban Crime.