Linda Geiser, USDA-FS, PNW Region Air Program, Corvallis, OR

1. Evidence of agricultural air pollution in Hell’s Canyon National Recreation Area: Implications for natural and cultural resources Linda Geiser, USDA-FS, PNW Region Air Program, Corvallis, OR Andrzej Bytnerowicz, USDA-FS, Pacific SW Research Station, Riverside, CA Anne Ingersoll, USDA-FS, PNW Region Air Program, Corvallis, OR Scott Copeland, Cooperative Institute for Research in the Atmosphere, Lander, WY

2. The Snake River valley with its moderate climate and abundant food resources, has long been inhabited by humans.

3. Forest Service archeologist Bruce Womak recreates rock art using local clays as pigments in Hells Canyon National Recreation Area.

4. Is Rock Art Threatened by Air Pollution? A perception exists among area archeologists that ancient pictographs and petroglyphs are fading and eroding in Hell’s Canyon NRA.

5. One Day Lichen Trip • Managers, archeologists, botanists, and air quality specialists went for a 1 day look- &-see river trip. • We collected grab samples of lichens near the rock art and analyzed for N, S, metal levels

6. One Day Lichen Trip Results • During day long jet boat trip, we noticed high nitrophytic lichen cover on trees visible form the river. • Lichen N & S levels were very high compared to other remote sites, in the upper range of polluted and urban sites, other elements were within expected ranges for remote sites. • Unanticipated conclusion: Atmospheric N & S deposition could be a problem. • But what forms of N & S are depositing? Is the problem limited to the river banks?

7. Lichen %N Lichen cover Lichen survey Bark pH 1-Week Lichen Study, 2000 • 4 tributaries, 3 primary and 1 secondary to the Snake R. • 4 plots per tributary, 3 km transects • 16 plots total • Plots restricted to net-leaf hackberry-bluestem bunchgrass plant community. • Measured: • Nitrophilous lichen cover, • Lichen N &S content, • Bark pH, • Lichen community composition • Collected habitat data.

8. 1-Week Lichen Study Results Nitrophilous lichen cover was very high along the main river banks and much lower at sites >0.4 km

9. 1-Week Lichen Study Results Rock lichen % N was highest close to the river and enhanced at all sites. Rock lichen % S was highest close to the river but background at other sites. % N in rock lichens and bark cover of nitrophilous lichens were strongly correlated.

10. 1-Week Lichen Study Results Bark pH data was consistent with deposition of ammonia, as opposed to acid forms of N

11. 1-Week Lichen Study Results • Lichen communities on the valley floor were: • Similar to each other • Correlated with other N deposition indicators • Different from lichen communities along tributaries (MRPP, p= 0.037, A = 0.0275).

12. Lichen parasites and parasymbionts were prevalent throughout the study area Melanelia Physcia Xanthoria

13. 1-Week Lichen Study Conclusions • Lichen-indicated N deposition was high throughout the study area compared to other remote sites in the Pacific Northwest and northern Rocky Mountains. • N deposition was highest on the valley floor. • NH3 is a likely source of N on the valley floor • S deposition might be high along the Snake valley floor, but not elsewhere. • N& S-containing air pollutants may threaten archeological and ecological resources

14. 1 Year Passive Monitoring Study • New questions: Is the river a source of ammonia? What other N- and S- containing pollutants are present? Is there an overlaying regional contribution? Are pollution levels high enough to threaten other natural resources or to damage rock art? • Passive sampling at 5 stations along the Snake R in Hells Canyon. Quantified biweekly-monthly mean ambient NH3, NOx, NO2, SO2, H2S. • Continuous ozone measurements in spring and summer at the IMPROVE site in Oxbow Village, OR (HECA). • Daily NH4NO3 and (NH4) 2SO4 concentrations in fine particulates from HECA for study period. • Air mass back trajectories for HECA.

15. Results: Ozone Average, minimum, and maximum daily summer ozone concentrations at Oxbow, OR in 2003 were within expected background ranges.

16. Background Ranges for Remote Sites Source: Bytnerowicz & Fenn. 1996. Env. Poll. 92:127-146 Results: NH3, NOx, SO2, H2S a Mean ambient concentrations of N- and S-containing gases from five monitoring stations along the Snake River in Hells Canyon Recreation Area, from July 1, 2002 through June 30, 2003. Only NH3 was high.

17. Background Ranges for Remote Sites Source: Bytnerowicz & Fenn. 1996. Env. Poll. 92:127-146 Results: Ammonia is episodically enhanced along the valley floor Ammonia concentrations (ppb) at 5 sites along the Snake River in HCNRA. Values are averages of two replicates during 2-4 week exposure periods from July 1, 2002 to June 30, 2003, marked at the midpoint of the exposure period.

18. IMPROVE Data • NH4NO3 concentrations in fine particulates at HECA are higher than other western US sites (excluding southern CA) on the 20% of days when visibility is most impaired. • The highest NH4NO3 days at HECA occur in winter. • HECA (NH4)2SO4 was low all year and similar to other western sites.

19. What are sources of N-containing pollutants in Hells Canyon?

20. Local sources and influences are probably unchanged • Topography • Animal wastes • Soils and plants • Wildfires

21. Long distance transport of regional pollutants has increased Unprecedented human population growth has led to intensification of • Agriculture • CAFO’s • Fish farms • Urban and industrial wastes • Vehicle use

22. Manure and commercial fertilizer contribute large amounts of nitrogen to watersheds of Idaho’s Snake River Basin http://water.usgs.gov/nawqa/wri94-4001/fig1.html http://water.usgs.gov/nawqa/wri94-4001/fig2.html

23. The Snake River: Ammonia source • Large scale agriculture in Idaho is a major source of N, P in the Snake R • Eutrophication causes extensive growth of algae and cyanobacteria which sink to deep, anoxic waters behind Snake R dams; nitrification ceases and NH4 accumulates. • Rapid algal growth consumes CO2, raising river pH to 9. • Water released from the bottom of Hells Canyon Dam is high in NH4; 1997 net release of 4.3 million kg NH4 . High pH favors conversion to NH3 and volatilzation. • NH3 deposits rapidly to vegetation surfaces, especially moist microsites closest to the river

24. Regional Ag and Urban Areas: Ammonium Nitrate Source 1999 Emissions densities vs. 96 hr back trajectory conditional probabilities on high NH4NO3 days • And Include: • Snake River Basin • San Francisco Bay Area • Southern California 1999 Emissions Density NH3 1999 Emissions Density NOx http://www.epa.gov/air/data/geosel.html

25. Conclusions How do the results of these studies inform us and shape our concerns for natural and cultural resources? • The intention of Wilderness Act is to preserve places unaltered and untrammeled by humans. CAA Class 1 designation affords the nations highest level of protection for air quality and air quality related values • Cultural heritage is also protected by law. • Biological, passive, and instrumented monitoring have provided evidence of • Episodically high ambient NH3 concentrations along the valley floor of Hells Canyon in spring/summer, • Seasonally high NH4NO3 concentrations in ambient fine particulates in winter, • Enhanced N deposition throughout HCNRA. • Eutrophication of the Snake River by agricultural fertilizers, anaerobic conditions behind dams, and high river pH explain ammonia production & volatilization. Deposition occurs to vegetation and other surfaces close to the river. • Western regional agriculture (esp Snake River Basin & southern CA) and urban areas are the most likely sources of wintertime NH4NO3 • High N deposition is linked to many adverse biological and ecological effects, e.g. community composition of plants, aquatic microflora & fauna (often favoring weedy species), soil fertility, water quality, fire frequency,etc. • Ammonia is highly reactive compound and a strong weathering agent of minerals. There are many reports of urban stone deterioration by air pollution, but very little on effects of ammonia. This aspect needs more study but meanwhile cannot be eliminated, together with higher visitor use, as an explanation of the deterioration observed by FS archaeologists. • Enforcement of current water quality standards (TMDL) and better regulation of agriculture would reduce pollution. • Continued monitoring is needed to document future conditions.

26. Thanks to our co-workers and contractors! US Forest Service Annie Ingersoll, Alexander Mikulin, and John Syzmoniak, Earl Baumgarten, Roy Lombardo, Molly Lowe, Judy Redner, Steve Lucas, Christine & Rachael Bennet , Robert Bachman, Bruce Womak, Kendall Clark , Dave Lebo, Jerry Hustafa, Sarah Jovan Contractors Maxaam, 2B Technology, Pacific Analytics, University of Minnesota Research Analytical Laboratory